ASSIGNMENT
NAME- Misty Verma
ROLL NO- 24528/31
SUBJECT- Paradigm Foundations of Psychological Inquiry
SUBMITTED TO- Ms. Elangbam Reebika Devi
Question 1. Discuss the key assumptions underlying the Positivist, Post-positivist, Critical,
Constructivist, and Participatory paradigms.
Answer. The paradigms of inquiry can be distinguished through their ontology, epistemology,
and methodology. These paradigms of inquiry ensure different interpretations on theory.
Kuhn (1970) defines a paradigm as a mean of sharing between members of a scientific
community. Paradigms of inquiry are the philosophical stance of the researcher that show
how his inquiry is designed in the research process. researcher that shows how his inquiry is
designed in the research process. Lincoln and Guba (2000) categorize types of paradigms of
inquiry as: Positivism, Post-Positivism, Critical Theory, Constructivist, and Participatory
approaches. The paradigm manages to solve the problem it defines, science marches forward
and makes tremendous progress. Paradigms of inquiry are the philosophical stance of the
researcher that show how his inquiry is designed in the research process.
Lincoln and Guba (2000) categorize types of paradigms of inquiry as: Positivism, Post-
Positivism, Critical Theory, Constructivist, and Participatory approaches.
1.Positivism
Positivism is referred to as “Naïve Realism”. Positivism reveals an epistemological dualistic
and objective approach. The investigator and investigated object are totally independent from
each other. Investigator abstains from affecting the investigation or being affected by it (Guba
and Lincoln, 1994). The Positivist paradigm, its epistemology is said to be objectivist, its
ontology naive realism, its methodology experimental, and its axiology beneficence. The
Positivist paradigm is one of the earliest and most influential ways of understanding how
psychological knowledge should be generated. It is strongly inspired by the natural sciences
like physics and biology.
The key assumptions of the positivism paradigm include-
,Empiricism: Knowledge is derived from sensory experience and measurable phenomena.
Determinism: The universe operates according to laws that govern all phenomena, including
human behavior.
Objectivity: Science should be free from personal bias, emotion, or interpretation.
Causality: Knowledge can be created objectively, free from the values of the researchers or p
articipants.
Scientific Method: Knowledge is developed through observation, logical deduction, and the q
uest for objective knowledge.
Criticism- Ignores subjective experience and meaning.
Treats humans like machines rather than complex, emotional beings.
Overemphasis on numbers and statistics.
Not suitable for studying culture, identity, emotions, or lived experiences.
2. Post-Positivism
Post-Positivism evaluates reality from the critical perspective. It is referred to as “critical
realism”. Reality exists in post-Positivism, but due to insufficient human intellectual
mechanism and the fundamentally intractable nature of phenomena, humans cannot totally
grasp bona fide reality and instead only understand it imperfectly and probabilistically (Guba
and Lincoln, 1994). The post-positivist paradigm emerged as a response to the strict, rigid
scientific approach of positivism. While positivism believed that human behaviour can be
studied with perfect objectivity and certainty, post-positivism takes a more realistic, humble,
and flexible view of human inquiry.
The key assumptions of the post-positivism paradigm include:
Subjectivity: Acknowledging that human knowledge is based on conjectures and that researc
hers' values and biases can influence what is observed.
Contextual Understanding: Recognizing that knowledge is influenced by historical, cultural, a
nd social contexts.
, Mixed Methods: Employing both quantitative and qualitative research methods to gain a com
prehensive understanding of phenomena.
Triangulation: Using multiple methods or data sources to enhance the validity of findings.
Falsifiability: Scientific knowledge advances by disproving hypotheses rather than confirmig
them.
Criticism- Underestimates Human Subjectivity and Meaning
Limited Support for Social Justice or Power Analysis
Too Much Dependence on Measurement Tools
3. Critical Theory
Marx (1818-1883), Weber (1864-1920), Horkheimer (1895-1973), Marcuse (1898-1979),
Fromm (1900-1980), and Adorno (1901-1969) are considered as the primary architects of
Critical Theory. These philosophers are also acknowledged as the first generation of Critical
Theorists. Capitalism has had a huge effect on development of critical theory. Critical theory
asks—who has power, who doesn’t, and how can research help change this? It focuses on
power, inequality, oppression, injustice, and social change.
Its key assumptions are as follows-
Ontological Assumption (Nature of Reality)- Reality is shaped by social, political, economic,
and cultural forces. Reality is not neutral; it is constructed in a way that benefits powerful
groups. Inequality is embedded in all institutions—education, family, government, healthcare,
media.
Epistemological Assumption (How We Know Reality)-Knowledge is not neutral. What we
consider “truth” often reflects the views of those in power (e.g., men, upper caste, wealthy,
dominant cultures).
Axiological Assumption (Role of Values)- Research should be value-driven, especially for
justice, equality, and emancipation. The researcher is not neutral; they take a stand against
oppression. It encourages reflexivity, where researchers examine their own privilege, biases,
and social position.
NAME- Misty Verma
ROLL NO- 24528/31
SUBJECT- Paradigm Foundations of Psychological Inquiry
SUBMITTED TO- Ms. Elangbam Reebika Devi
Question 1. Discuss the key assumptions underlying the Positivist, Post-positivist, Critical,
Constructivist, and Participatory paradigms.
Answer. The paradigms of inquiry can be distinguished through their ontology, epistemology,
and methodology. These paradigms of inquiry ensure different interpretations on theory.
Kuhn (1970) defines a paradigm as a mean of sharing between members of a scientific
community. Paradigms of inquiry are the philosophical stance of the researcher that show
how his inquiry is designed in the research process. researcher that shows how his inquiry is
designed in the research process. Lincoln and Guba (2000) categorize types of paradigms of
inquiry as: Positivism, Post-Positivism, Critical Theory, Constructivist, and Participatory
approaches. The paradigm manages to solve the problem it defines, science marches forward
and makes tremendous progress. Paradigms of inquiry are the philosophical stance of the
researcher that show how his inquiry is designed in the research process.
Lincoln and Guba (2000) categorize types of paradigms of inquiry as: Positivism, Post-
Positivism, Critical Theory, Constructivist, and Participatory approaches.
1.Positivism
Positivism is referred to as “Naïve Realism”. Positivism reveals an epistemological dualistic
and objective approach. The investigator and investigated object are totally independent from
each other. Investigator abstains from affecting the investigation or being affected by it (Guba
and Lincoln, 1994). The Positivist paradigm, its epistemology is said to be objectivist, its
ontology naive realism, its methodology experimental, and its axiology beneficence. The
Positivist paradigm is one of the earliest and most influential ways of understanding how
psychological knowledge should be generated. It is strongly inspired by the natural sciences
like physics and biology.
The key assumptions of the positivism paradigm include-
,Empiricism: Knowledge is derived from sensory experience and measurable phenomena.
Determinism: The universe operates according to laws that govern all phenomena, including
human behavior.
Objectivity: Science should be free from personal bias, emotion, or interpretation.
Causality: Knowledge can be created objectively, free from the values of the researchers or p
articipants.
Scientific Method: Knowledge is developed through observation, logical deduction, and the q
uest for objective knowledge.
Criticism- Ignores subjective experience and meaning.
Treats humans like machines rather than complex, emotional beings.
Overemphasis on numbers and statistics.
Not suitable for studying culture, identity, emotions, or lived experiences.
2. Post-Positivism
Post-Positivism evaluates reality from the critical perspective. It is referred to as “critical
realism”. Reality exists in post-Positivism, but due to insufficient human intellectual
mechanism and the fundamentally intractable nature of phenomena, humans cannot totally
grasp bona fide reality and instead only understand it imperfectly and probabilistically (Guba
and Lincoln, 1994). The post-positivist paradigm emerged as a response to the strict, rigid
scientific approach of positivism. While positivism believed that human behaviour can be
studied with perfect objectivity and certainty, post-positivism takes a more realistic, humble,
and flexible view of human inquiry.
The key assumptions of the post-positivism paradigm include:
Subjectivity: Acknowledging that human knowledge is based on conjectures and that researc
hers' values and biases can influence what is observed.
Contextual Understanding: Recognizing that knowledge is influenced by historical, cultural, a
nd social contexts.
, Mixed Methods: Employing both quantitative and qualitative research methods to gain a com
prehensive understanding of phenomena.
Triangulation: Using multiple methods or data sources to enhance the validity of findings.
Falsifiability: Scientific knowledge advances by disproving hypotheses rather than confirmig
them.
Criticism- Underestimates Human Subjectivity and Meaning
Limited Support for Social Justice or Power Analysis
Too Much Dependence on Measurement Tools
3. Critical Theory
Marx (1818-1883), Weber (1864-1920), Horkheimer (1895-1973), Marcuse (1898-1979),
Fromm (1900-1980), and Adorno (1901-1969) are considered as the primary architects of
Critical Theory. These philosophers are also acknowledged as the first generation of Critical
Theorists. Capitalism has had a huge effect on development of critical theory. Critical theory
asks—who has power, who doesn’t, and how can research help change this? It focuses on
power, inequality, oppression, injustice, and social change.
Its key assumptions are as follows-
Ontological Assumption (Nature of Reality)- Reality is shaped by social, political, economic,
and cultural forces. Reality is not neutral; it is constructed in a way that benefits powerful
groups. Inequality is embedded in all institutions—education, family, government, healthcare,
media.
Epistemological Assumption (How We Know Reality)-Knowledge is not neutral. What we
consider “truth” often reflects the views of those in power (e.g., men, upper caste, wealthy,
dominant cultures).
Axiological Assumption (Role of Values)- Research should be value-driven, especially for
justice, equality, and emancipation. The researcher is not neutral; they take a stand against
oppression. It encourages reflexivity, where researchers examine their own privilege, biases,
and social position.
