PATH 120 REVIEW EXAM QUESTIONS ANSWERED CORRECTLY LATEST UPDATE 2026

PATH 120 REVIEW EXAM QUESTIONS ANSWERED CORRECTLY LATEST UPDATE 2026 Describe the structure of a neuron - Answers - cell body: containing the nucleus - dendrites: treelike features that extend from the cell body and contain receptors - axon: transmits outgoing signals away from the cell body -axon terminals: where neurotransmitters, where signals are transmitted to adjacent neurons - myelin sheath: fatty coating for axons, insulation for signals, speeds up transmission (not on all axons) What are 3 indigenous ways of experimental learning - Answers 1. Observation 2. Action 3. Reflexion What is the definition of pathology - Answers Study of disease, it's cause/effects, and process of planning a course of treatment What is etiology? - Answers cause of disease What is pathogenesis? - Answers how a disease develops (mechanisms of action) What is a biochemical change? - Answers - "lab test values" - build up of substances or loss of substances - ex: DNA sequencing, glucose levels, antigen testing, HDL+ LDL levels. What is a morphological change? - Answers - structural or tissue changes - changes to cellular level - "how it looks", blood smear, biopsy results What is a functional change? - Answers - symptoms - "how its working" ex: high blood pressure, loss of mobility What is a natural history? - Answers - the progression and projected outcome of the disease without medical intervention - likely outcome/ prognosis What is treatment? - Answers Management/ care of patient What are complications? - Answers - New secondary or additional problems - Short an longterm effects What are 4 Indigenous ways to transmit knowledge to future generations. - Answers 1. Through knowledge keepers 2. Ceremonical speeches 3. Storytelling 4. Sharing circles What are 2 important Indigenous values? - Answers 1. Relationality: Were all related (people+ nature+ spiritual world) 2. Spirituality: Practices are sacred and secular. What are the 7 grand father values? - Answers 1. Courage 2. Love 3. Honesty 4. Wisdom 5. Humility 6. Truth 7. Respect What are the 4 sections of the medicine wheel and describe what they mean? - Answers Spiritual: cultural safety, strenght and resiliences Physical: Capacities, mobility, comorbidity, awarnes and prevention Mental: Housing, family, community and ceremony Emotional: Casuality, access to equipment and services What is an ally? - Answers A person who: - recognizes privilege - educated - takes responsibility for change role of nucleus - Answers - Stores DNA - where DNA replication occurs - Where DNA is transcribed to mRNA role of mitochondria - Answers - produces energy (ATP) where krebs cycle takes place Role of cytoplasm: - Answers Liquid in the cell Role of cytoskeleton - Answers - dense network of specialized structure - moves cargo - generates motion Role of endoplasmic reticulum - Answers - where proteins are translated and processed - where lipids are made - helps transport of molecules around the cell Role of Golgi Apparatus - Answers - "post office" of the cell - packages proteins and sends to vesicles to be sent to final destination Role of lysosomes - Answers -Digest waste (proteins lipids, nucleic acids to their base aka recycling) -destroy viruses/ bacteria Role of endosomes - Answers -store -sort -organize Role of peroxisomes - Answers makes hydrogen peroxide in reaction to reactive oxygen species in body How are cells specialized - Answers By gene expression What is a genetic muation - Answers - changes to DNA - proteins cannot be properly made What are the 5 steps of the cell cycle? - Answers G0= phase where cells enter when they are not dividing G1= cells are actively growing, they must pass checkpoint before they start division to ensure proper completion of the phase before the next S= the entire genome is replicated G2= last changes for cells to grow before they are divided M= cell division/mitosis What are the 5 steps of mitosis? - Answers 1. Prophase: Chromosomes become visible, nuclear envelope breaks down, microtubials grow from centrioles and move to opposite poles of the cell. 2. Metaphase: chromosomes line up along the middle of the cell, microtubials attach themselves to sister chromatids. 3. Anaphase: Sister chromatids are separated. 4. Telophase: sister chromatids reach the ends of the cell 5. Cytokinesis: The 2 cells divide. What is a stem cell? - Answers a cell that can differentiate and become any type of human cell What is a progenitor cell? - Answers a stem cell that becomes partially specialized through asymmetric division What is stem cell differentiation - Answers A progenitor cell divides to replace a damaged or lost cell Causes of uncontrolled cell division - Answers - checkpoints dont work properly causing growth or cancer Causes of cell death. - Answers apoptosis and necrosis - lack of ressources or release of harmful chemicals like ROS ( reactive oxygen species) What is cancer? - Answers - uncontrolled cell division - spreads to other tissues What is a neoplasm? - Answers Abnormal tissue forming when cells grow and divide What is a tumor? - Answers - mass/ swelling/ enlargement- can be benign or malignant Can benign tumour invade or spread? - Answers No Can malignant tumour invade or spread? - Answers Yes Can the size of a benign tumour impact the harm - Answers No, they can grow up to 50kg without killing patient Can the size of a malignant tumour impact the harm - Answers a malignant tumour can kill someone before even weighing 50g What does a benign tumour look like? - Answers - smooth/round - looks like a sea sponge What does a malignant tumour look like? - Answers - spiky contour - looks like a crab What is a carcinoma? - Answers - cancer of epithelial cells - solid tumour What is a sarcoma? - Answers - cancer of connective tissue - develops in fat, muscles, nerves, tendons, joints, blood vessels, lymph vessels, cartillage or bone What is lymphoma? - Answers - begins at lymohocytes, affecting cells of the immune system (glands, nodes and lymphoid tissues) What is a glioma? - Answers - cancer of the connective tissues of the brain What is leukemia? - Answers cancer of the blood and bone marrow cells What is the etiology of cancer? - Answers - 50% prevalence in canada - caused by genetic mutation What are some risk factors of cancer? - Answers - Family history - Tobacco use - Age - HPV infection -UV radiation What happens to the body with the use of tobacco? - Answers 1. Tobacco: - each inhale contains lots of toxic chemicals - the chemicals kill epiphelial cells - the tobacco lines the airways. 2. Injury: - When epiphelial tissue dies, stem cells need to work harder and multiply more to fix the issue 3. Repair: - Epiphelial layer is restored 4. Resting state: - There is sucessful repair - stem cells can return to resting stage 5. Persistent activation: - stem cells can mutate cuz they are overworked and not at rest. - smokers are often persistent putting their stem cells at more frequent risk of damage due to chemicals, risking more mutations Explain the steps of evolution and clonality of cancer - Answers 1. Tranformation: A cell mutates from normal to mutated version 2. Progression: The mutated cell 1 multiples and variates. 3. Proliferation: More mutations can be made creating subclones of the cancer 4. Tumour heterogeneity: The most "ideal" mutation will continue to replicate but there will be subclones of the mutation making it heterogenous What is a silent mutation? - Answers alters a base but does not change the amino acid What is an oncogenic mutation? - Answers A mutation directly contributing to the development of cancer What are 3 challenges to cancer treatment? - Answers 1. Various types of tissues: different tissues respond to treatment differently. 2. Continuous mutations: Some subclones of a mutation will respond to treatment better than others. 3. Diversity: tumours can arise from the same cell and they can still be different from one another What can an oncogene do? - Answers - produce proteins with new or altered functions - act on growth factor receptor pathways - they are more known with sporadic cancers (cancer of a person with no family history) What are tumor suppressor genes? - Answers genes that normally prevent cell division Common mutated genes in cancer - Answers TP53 ERBB-1 Discuss TP53 - Answers - in almost all cancers - chromosome 17 - gene is transcribed an translated to form 53 protein - affects G1 and S part of cell reproduciton What is the p53 protein? - Answers - determines whether a cell will survive or die - can stop cancer cells from surviving or can give them an advantage - activated when DNA is damaged, it is activatedm it binds ot DNA, stops cell reproduction in G1 cycle, induced repair by transcriptional regulation - when it is inactive, cells with DNA damage can form malignant tumours Discuss ERBB-1 gene - Answers - codes for EGFR (epidermal growth factor receptor) - chromosome 7 - gene is transcribed and translated to for EGFR protein What is EGFR protein - Answers - detects ligands (extracellular signals) - tyrosine kinase (enzyme that transfers PO4 group to specific proteins) - broken down by lysosomes - common target for anti-cancer drugs - unaffected by chemo - antibodies is common treatment - kinase inhibitor are effective treatment Comparison of p53 and EGFR - Answers - EGFR can be targeted from outside of cell - p53 has no extracellular component therefore drugs must enter the cell to be effective Present Aaliyah case (colorectal cancer case study) - Answers - she wasnt feeling well so visited Dr - blood tests show iron dificiency (anemia) which when in older men or post-menopausal women is a sign of gastrointestinal cancer - referred to gastroenterologist - got a upper endoscopy( camera into mouth, stomach and beginning of small intestine) - got colonoscopy where pass was found and biopsy was done - mass is cancerous - CT scan done to check for metastisis and there was none - hemicolectomy performer (part of large intestine removed) - genetic testing done to check for lynch syndrome which comes out positive What are the 5 steps of the development of colorectal cancer? - Answers 1. hyperproliferation: A cell containes oncogenic mutations and divides and grows faster than normal 2. Adenomatous polyp: Rapidly dividing cells move into intestinal lumen causing an adenoma/ colonic polyp 3. Precancerous polyp: Precancerous polyps can be removed before they become cancerous. It can take 7-10 years for these growths to become malignant adenocarcinomas 4. Adenocarcinoma: Polyps can become adenocarcinoma and cells can invade into adjacent tissue layers 5. Advanced cancer: Polyps will continue to grow and invade deeper tissues, Cancer can enter the bloodstream and metastasize. what is the importance of screening for colorectal cancer - Answers - reduction risk of 77% - screening is done due to age or family history What are 2 common screenings done for colorectal cancer? - Answers 1. fecal immunochemical test: - safe and painless - good for ppl age 50-74 - done every 2 yrs - examines for blood in stool 2. Colonoscopy - best for people at high risk What are the stages of cancer (prognosis) - Answers T: depth N: spread to lymph nodes M: Metastisis What are the grades of cancer? - Answers G1: low grade, still only found in glands, glands not very circular, hollow appearance G2: medium grade, Some are still glands, still not very circular, cell shape is very different to G! or normal cell, center is filled with cells or debirs G3: medium-high grade, barely looks like a glad ,cells vary in shape and size, only a few cells are still hollow G4: high grade, no gland strucutre, no cells are hollow, cells do not have a specific structure. What is the difference between sporadic or familial colorectal cancer - Answers Sporadic: spontaneous mutations in both allele of adenomatous polyposis coli gene (APC) Familial: inherited mutation What is Lynch syndrome? - Answers - caused by a germline mutation (mutation of sperm or egg) - causes a higher risk of developping cancer What is the prognosis of colorectal cancer? - Answers 65% survival rate after 5 years What are factors that can cause colorectal cancer? - Answers - Age and health - Response to treatment - Stage and grade: Stage 1=90% survival vs stage 4=10% - Genetics - Access and compliance: access to screening and treatment and being voluntary to be treated Risk factors that put Indigenous people at higher risk of colorectal cancer - Answers - smoking - alcohol consumption - obesity - food insecurity - poverty - poor sanitation Describe Jorges case (Acute Myeloid leukemia) - Answers - 37 y/o male - symptoms: shortness of breath, low energy levels, nosebleeds, fever - blood test done to check for white and red blood cells, platelets and clotting factors - blood smear performed which shows blasts in his blood that are promylocytes - is diagnosed with acute myeloid leukemia - genetic testing shows PML- RARA translocation What is the impact of blood cancer in Canada - Answers - accoutns for 10% of all cancer in CA - 21000 new diagnoses in 2019 What is hematopoiesis? - Answers formation of blood cells from a stem cell to different specialized blood cells What is the classical blood cancer pathway? - Answers 1. Differentiation block (tumour suppresor gene is lost in the HSCs leading to accumulation of immature blood cells (blasts) 2. Enhanced proliferation: Proto-oncogens are mutated and proliferation increases What are the 4 types of blood cancer? - Answers 1. Acute myeloid leukemia 2. Acute lymphocytic leukemia 3. Chronic myelogenous leukemia 4. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia What are the main differences between acute and chronic blood cancers. - Answers Chronic: Proliferation of well differentiated cells, slow progression, can be monitored for some times before treatment is needed. Acute: Proliferation of poorly differentiated cells, progresses rapidly, needs immediate treatment Factors affecting prognosis of AML - Answers Age: poeple 65+ are at higher risk of death whereas childre 1-15 have a 90% survival rate. Weight: underweight or overweight causes higher risk of death Previous blood disorders: like hemophilia, anemia... Genetics: certain mutations can make prognosis better or worse Name some AML related genes - Answers AML1-ETO CBFβ-SMMHC PML-RARA!!! this ones important to know FLT3 c-KIT N-RAS, K-RAS BCR-ABL TEL-PDGFB What is immunotherapy? - Answers - using the bodys immune system to fight cancer - not useful for everyone - good for people with high immune response What are some cancer biomarkers? - Answers - Small chemical products - Enzymes -DNA - RNa - Cancer cells - Protein What are the 3 types of biomarkers - Answers 1. Diagnostic biomarker: detects or confirms presence of disease 2. Prognostic biomarker: indicates likelyhood of disease progression or reoccurrence 3. Predictive biomarker: predicts response to a treatment What is metabolism? - Answers - total balance of energy requirements - process of converting macromolecules to energy Describes: - how we take macromolecu;es - how we store macromolecu;es - how we break them down - how we create new ones when needed What is an anabolic pathway? - Answers A pathway where simple molecules are built up into more complex molecules. Requires energy. What is a catabolic pathway? - Answers release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds What are the 4 macromolecules? - Answers carbohydrates: sugar, glycogen, fiber, starches *glucose=primary source of energy lipids: fats (tryglycerides, oils, fats, cholesterol), associated with transporter proteins cuz theyre hydrophobic, part of adipose tissue proteins: chains of amino acids, broken down for energy if starving nucleic acids: DNA, RNA, critical for central dogma, not for energy but they make up ATP and GTP What are the factors that influence how our body stores energy? - Answers - Food intake - Food expenditure - Fat stores: how much fat you already have stored - CNS: basal metabolic rate (# of calories needed to keep your body functioning at rest. What is the bodys equilibrium? - Answers Where the body ia at equal amount of anabolism and catabolism Why does our body do anabolism? - Answers - no exercises and high food intake means sugars and fats are stored a lot. - low exercise means adipose storage - high food intake means high blood sugar and low basal metabolic rate Why does our body do catabolism? - Answers - exercise and fasting causes more catabolic process - high exercise means adipose breakdown - low food intake means energy deficiency, low blood sugar and induced hunger What organ produces insulin? - Answers Pancreas Explain insulin binding - Answers Insulin binds to its receptor outside of the cell. The receptor is activated which signals an increase in anabolic activity Explain glucose transport - Answers insulin sitmulates the movement of glucose transporters from endosomes in cells to the plasma membrane. Glucose can now enter the cell and be used for energy What happens if theres no insulin? - Answers Glucose enters the cell but cannot be metabolized. What are plasmalipoproteins? - Answers - transporter of lipids in the blood stream - form spheres - their casing makes lipids watersoluble What is cholesterol? - Answers - made in the liver - travels through the bloodstream - cause of heart disease and stroke - 2 kinds: LDL (low density lipoprotein aka bad) and HDL (high density lipoproteins, carries LDL away from arteries back to the liver) - high trygliceride, low HDL and high LDL causes higher risk of heart disease What are the risk factors of metabolic disease? - Answers Obesity: - accumulation of body fat - childhood obesity in canada has increase by 3x - in 2016 more ppl were obese than underweight - cause of T2 diabetes, heart disease, hypertension, cancer and arthritis Fat storage: - Subcutaneous fat: - counts for 80-90% of body fat - found under the skin - around abdomen, hips and thighs - higher rate in womens lower body - gives people a pear shape - Visceral fat: - counts for 10-20% of body fat - within the abdominal cavity - associated with the digestive tract - gives people an apple shape What are the factors of metabolic syndrome (MetS)? - Answers - High blood sugar - hypertension - high triglycerides - low HDL- cholesterol - visceral obesity Describe Mariannes case (Type 2 diabetes case study) - Answers - 49 y/o Woman - family history of diabetes - BMI and waist circumference above healthy - Blood work indicates: high blood sugar, high hemoglobin A1C, high LDL cholesterol, high blood pressure, low HDL-cholesterol and high triglycerides What is the necessary criteria for diabetes diagnosis - Answers 2 of these needed: - fasting blood glucose levels 7.0 mmol/L - hemoglobin A1C levels 6.5% for adults - glucose tolerance test 11.1 mmol/L - random blood glucose 11.1 mmol/L What are the differences between type 1 and type 2 diabetes? - Answers T1: - considered an autoimmune disorder - the body doesn't produce insulin - β cells are killed T2: - body resists insulin - β cells don't work properly Why would an insulin prescription be helpful? - Answers Patients with T1 diabetes cannot produce insulin therefore need a replacement. In severe of T2 diabetes a patient can be prescribed insulin if β cells fail completely Describe the development of insulin resistance in T2D - Answers 1. Healthy: - β cells release insulin when blood glucose levels are elevated 2. Excessive glucose intake: - excess food intake - blood sugar levels rise - pancreas has to produce more insulin 3. Continued glucose intake: - with high sugar intake comes a changes in receptors - when insulin binds to receptors, it lets less glucose into the cells causing insulin resistance 4. Insulin resistance: - tissues like liver, fat cells, muscles become less responsive to insulin 5. β cell damages - to compensate, the pancreas has to make more insulin and the β cells become damaged How is T2 diabetes diagnosed? - Answers - using blood tests to dteermine fasting blood glucose levels, and hemoglobin A1C levels Symptoms of T2 diabetes - Answers - polyuria (frequent urinating) - polydisplasia (excessive thirst) - polyphagia (excesssive hunger) Compare Metabolic syndrome and diabetes - Answers Diabetes: - high hemoglobin levels Metabolic syndrome: - high triglycerides - high LDL-cholesterol Both: - high blood sugar What is metformin and what does it do? - Answers -medication used to treat T2 diabetes - activates signalling pathways that plays important role in sugar and fat metabolism - increases insulin sensitivity - decreases absorption of glucose - promotes catabolism of glucose in cells Complications due to diabetes - Answers - vision loss due to retinal damage - cardiovascular disease, heart disease, high risk of heart attack, stroke - failing to produce insulin (insulin therapy and meds may be needed) - high glucose levels (kidneys cant filter properly leading to damges to kidneys, its blood vessels and its function) - diabetic peripheral neuropathy, loss of feeling, tissue damage, ulcers. What are risk factors of diabetes? - Answers - age: T1 is usually diagnosed in children, T2 45+ but becoming more frequent in children with rising obesity - lifestyle: Only for T2 diabetes, poor diet and lack of exercise - family history: both types are genetic Reasons why diabetes affects Indigenous communities at higher rates? - Answers - lack of health services - homelessness - work more dangerous jobs therefore higher risk of hospitalization - lack of nutritious food Describe Bens case (Atherosclerosis) - Answers - 55 y/o male - symptoms: right-sided weakness, speech difficulty (stroke symptoms) - Has T2 diabetes therefore his family knew the signs of stroke and called 911 - diagnosed with an acute ischemic stroke - recevies cloth busting thrombolytic therapy - now takes plasminogen activator - Uses metformin and has a fixed diet and exercise regimen - Obese BMI of 36 - smoker for 25yrs but quit 10 yrs ago - elevated heart rate of 122bpm - blood pressure 185/40 - O2 normal - blood glucose levels midly elevated - ECG inconclusive - scheduled for surgery to remove cloth from brain What is heart disease? - Answers - general term defining many conditions affects of heart disease in Canada - Answers - affects 2/1000 people in CA - hypertension affects 1/4 people in CA - 50% more common in Indigenous people What is atherosclerosis? - Answers - thickening of the arteries and major blood vessels - combination of inflammation and plaque build up - most common in coronary arteries How is atherosclerosis diagnosed? - Answers Ultrasound showing plaques in the heart What is the first step of atherosclerosis progression? - Answers 1. Injury - endothelial cells are injured due to force of blood flow and friction - can be damaged from smoking, hypertension, viruses - too much LDL in blood can cause an accumulation of blood vessels What is the second step of atherosclerosis progression? - Answers 2. Infiltration - LDL accumulation leads to more inflammation and this recruits platelets - platelets form blood cloths and immune cells - these cells infiltrate the vessel wall What is the third step of atherosclerosis progression? - Answers 3. Lipid buildup: - immune cells engulf the lipoproteins to try to remove the build up - this being said, LDL-filled immune cells undergo apoptosis and this created more inflammation (1st sign of plaque) What is the final step of atherosclerosis progression? - Answers 4. Complete Plaque