MODULE 3
MEDIA IN GROUP BEHAVIOR
REPRESENTATION OF DIFFERENT SOCIAL GROUPS IN MEDIA
● Kids and adults see many characters on TV, which may be the only way they
learn about certain jobs or social groups.
● Seeing a group only on TV can lead to relying on stereotypes, especially if
real-life experience is lacking.
● People may choose careers (like psychology) after seeing exciting characters
on TV, even if real-life jobs are very different.
● Older adults, women, and ethnic minorities are shown much less on TV than
they exist in real life.
● When minorities are shown, they're often portrayed unfairly (e.g., Black men
shown as aggressive more often than White men).
GENDER REPRESENTATION IN THE MEDIA
● In earlier decades (especially the 1970s and 1980s), TV showed way more
male characters than female ones.
● This term means women were so rarely shown, it was like they didn’t exist in
media.
● Between 1973 and 1993, about 68.5% of TV characters were male.
● Women were often young, married, sexualized, or in traditional jobs like
nurses or waitresses.
● Older studies found women were often shown as weak or needing to be
saved by men (like Lois Lane and Superman).
● In advertising, women were more likely to be shown lying down, touching
things gently, or looking passive.
● By the late 1990s, more women were seen in powerful roles like police
officers, doctors, or lawyers.
● Film critic Laura Mulvey said that movies are often shown from a male point
of view, especially for straight men.
● Ads for household products were aimed at women, but now that women are
major consumers, more ads target them too.
Three Types of Masculinity (Connell, 1995):
● Hegemonic Masculinity – the dominant, “ideal” male image (strong,
, powerful).
● Conservative Masculinity – traditional male roles and values.
● Subordinated Masculinity – men who don’t fit the typical male image (e.g.
gay men or those seen as “less masculine”).
REPRESENTATIONS OF MINORITY GROUPS IN THE MEDIA
Refers to how ethnic, sexual, disabled, religious, and other non-majority groups are
shown in media (TV, film, ads, news, etc.).
Media often shapes public opinions and beliefs about these groups—especially
when people don’t interact with them directly.
Clark suggested that minority representation happens in 4 stages:
1. Exclusion – The group is invisible or ignored in the media.
2. Ridicule – The group is mocked or shown in racist/sexist ways.
3. Regulation – The group is shown in controlled roles, often to please pressure
groups (e.g., Black actors in respectable roles).
4. Respect – The group is shown in a wide variety of roles, both good and bad,
like the majority group.
The model is too simple for today’s complex media world.
It may apply to news or presenters, but not entertainment, where meanings
are often mixed.
The line between regulation and respect is now blurry.
When minorities are shown, they are often shown using simplified or negative
stereotypes:
● Black men aggressive
● Asian men nerdy or passive
● Gay characters flamboyant/comedic
● People with disabilities helpless or inspirational
Even “positive” stereotypes (e.g., “natural Black athlete”) can be harmful by
reinforcing racial ideas (Hall, 1981).
MEDIA REPRESENTATIONS OF DISABILITY
Disability is a condition—physical, mental, intellectual, or sensory—that makes it
more difficult for a person to do certain activities or interact with the world around
them in the same way as others.
In British TV (1988), only 1.4% of people had an obvious disability, compared to 7–
14% in real life (Cumberbatch & Negrine, 1992).
Some disabilities (e.g., mobility issues) are shown more than others (e.g.,
communication problems, incontinence).
Least shown in entertainment (e.g., game shows, comedies).
MEDIA IN GROUP BEHAVIOR
REPRESENTATION OF DIFFERENT SOCIAL GROUPS IN MEDIA
● Kids and adults see many characters on TV, which may be the only way they
learn about certain jobs or social groups.
● Seeing a group only on TV can lead to relying on stereotypes, especially if
real-life experience is lacking.
● People may choose careers (like psychology) after seeing exciting characters
on TV, even if real-life jobs are very different.
● Older adults, women, and ethnic minorities are shown much less on TV than
they exist in real life.
● When minorities are shown, they're often portrayed unfairly (e.g., Black men
shown as aggressive more often than White men).
GENDER REPRESENTATION IN THE MEDIA
● In earlier decades (especially the 1970s and 1980s), TV showed way more
male characters than female ones.
● This term means women were so rarely shown, it was like they didn’t exist in
media.
● Between 1973 and 1993, about 68.5% of TV characters were male.
● Women were often young, married, sexualized, or in traditional jobs like
nurses or waitresses.
● Older studies found women were often shown as weak or needing to be
saved by men (like Lois Lane and Superman).
● In advertising, women were more likely to be shown lying down, touching
things gently, or looking passive.
● By the late 1990s, more women were seen in powerful roles like police
officers, doctors, or lawyers.
● Film critic Laura Mulvey said that movies are often shown from a male point
of view, especially for straight men.
● Ads for household products were aimed at women, but now that women are
major consumers, more ads target them too.
Three Types of Masculinity (Connell, 1995):
● Hegemonic Masculinity – the dominant, “ideal” male image (strong,
, powerful).
● Conservative Masculinity – traditional male roles and values.
● Subordinated Masculinity – men who don’t fit the typical male image (e.g.
gay men or those seen as “less masculine”).
REPRESENTATIONS OF MINORITY GROUPS IN THE MEDIA
Refers to how ethnic, sexual, disabled, religious, and other non-majority groups are
shown in media (TV, film, ads, news, etc.).
Media often shapes public opinions and beliefs about these groups—especially
when people don’t interact with them directly.
Clark suggested that minority representation happens in 4 stages:
1. Exclusion – The group is invisible or ignored in the media.
2. Ridicule – The group is mocked or shown in racist/sexist ways.
3. Regulation – The group is shown in controlled roles, often to please pressure
groups (e.g., Black actors in respectable roles).
4. Respect – The group is shown in a wide variety of roles, both good and bad,
like the majority group.
The model is too simple for today’s complex media world.
It may apply to news or presenters, but not entertainment, where meanings
are often mixed.
The line between regulation and respect is now blurry.
When minorities are shown, they are often shown using simplified or negative
stereotypes:
● Black men aggressive
● Asian men nerdy or passive
● Gay characters flamboyant/comedic
● People with disabilities helpless or inspirational
Even “positive” stereotypes (e.g., “natural Black athlete”) can be harmful by
reinforcing racial ideas (Hall, 1981).
MEDIA REPRESENTATIONS OF DISABILITY
Disability is a condition—physical, mental, intellectual, or sensory—that makes it
more difficult for a person to do certain activities or interact with the world around
them in the same way as others.
In British TV (1988), only 1.4% of people had an obvious disability, compared to 7–
14% in real life (Cumberbatch & Negrine, 1992).
Some disabilities (e.g., mobility issues) are shown more than others (e.g.,
communication problems, incontinence).
Least shown in entertainment (e.g., game shows, comedies).
