Roman Empire
Between the birth of Christ and the early 7th century, Rome and Iran were powerful empires
ruling most of Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East, divided by the Euphrates River and
dominating most of the known world.
1. The early empire
From the birth of Christ to the early 7th century, Rome and Iran were powerful empires
ruling most of Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East, separated by the Euphrates
River.
The Roman Empire was more diverse than Iran, with many cultures and languages—Latin
in the west, Greek in the east—all united under one emperor.
I. Army, senate and emperor
Emperor:-
o Augustus became the first emperor in 27 BCE and started the Principate, calling himself the
“leading citizen.”
o The emperor was the head of the army and ruled under a hereditary monarchy.
o Augustus respected the Senate, reduced its powers, and built roads, fire, and police
departments.
o He was earlier called Octavian; the name “Augustus” was given by senators.
o Tiberius, his stepson, abolished the Assembly and expanded the empire north.
o Caligula ruled well at first but became cruel later.
o Claudius held the first official census at Rome.
o Nero was a cruel ruler who killed his mother, wives, and teacher, and blamed Christians for
the fire in Rome.
o Vespasian built the Roman Colosseum.
o Trajan conquered lands up to the Euphrates and dreamed of conquering India.
o Emperors were judged by how they treated the Senate; cruel ones were disliked.
Senate
o The Senate was the main law-making body of educated and intelligent members.
o Those only who were highly literate and intelligent can be senates
o No law could pass without the Senate’s approval and all important decisions are taken by them
o It represented rich Roman and Italian landowners.
o Many senators wanted the Republic back but knew it was impossible.
Army
o The Roman army was paid, not conscripted like the Iranian army.
o Soldiers served at least 25 years and got fixed salaries.
o The army was large, disciplined, and respected.
o It helped defend and expand the empire.
o Roman was known for fighting, engineering skills and rigorous training
o The army could choose emperors and sometimes revolted for better pay.
o The Senate feared the army’s power and violence.
o Succes of an army depend on the control of army, when armies were divided, it led to civil war
Rome merged kingdoms into provinces.
By the early 2nd century, kingdoms west of the Euphrates became part of Rome.
Some kingdoms were very rich; Herod’s kingdom gave 5.4 million denarii yearly (about 125,000
kg of gold).
Except Italy, all territories were provinces and paid taxes.
At its peak, Rome stretched from Scotland to Armenia and from the Sahara to the Euphrates,
with about 60 million people.
Cities like Carthage, Alexandria, and Antioch helped the emperor control the empire and collect
taxes.
, Local upper classes worked with Rome to govern and collect taxes, forming a new powerful class.
Provincial elites became stronger than senators; Emperor Gallienus stopped senators from
commanding the army.
Cities had magistrates, councils, and villages; villages could become cities as imperial favor.
Cities gave better food, baths, and entertainment, with shows lasting up to 176 days per year
2. 3rd century crisis
The first and second centuries were mostly peaceful, prosperous, and growing economically.
The third century showed the first major internal problems.
From the 230s, Rome had to fight on many borders simultaneously.
In 225, the Sasanian dynasty appeared in Iran & extend upto Euphrates within 15 years
Shapur I claimed he killed 60,000 soldiers and captured Antioch.
Germanic tribes like the Alamanni, Franks, and Goths attacked the Rhine and Danube.
From 233 to 280, repeated attacks affected provinces from the Black Sea to the Alps and
southern Germany.
Rome lost its much land beyond the Danube, & emperors constantly fought the “barbarians.”
Rapid change of emperors (25 in 47 years) showing political instability
3. Gender, literacy and culture
Roman families were nuclear; adult sons rarely lived with parents, brothers did not share
households, but slaves were part of the family.
By the late Republic, wives had property rights from their families; dowry went to the husband
during marriage, but the wife kept inheritance from her mother.
Married couples were legally separate; divorce was easy, but husbands were older than wives,
marriages were arranged, and women could be dominated by husbands.
Fathers had strong legal control over children, including the power to expose abandon them
Literacy rates was uneven across the Roman Empire.
In Pompeii (buried in 79 CE), many people could read & write casually/ was widespread literacy
Streets of Pompeii had advertisements and graffiti everywhere.
In Egypt, documents were written by professional scribes; soldiers, officers, and estate managers
who were literate, but many people could not.
The Roman Empire had many religions, local gods, languages, clothes, food, social systems, and
settlement patterns.
Aramaic was common western Euphrates, Coptic in Egypt, Punic and Berber in North Africa, and
Celtic in Spain and northwest.
Many languages were only spoken at first; Armenian was written in the 5th century, while Coptic
Bible existed by the mid-3rd century.
Latin spread widely and replaced other written languages. Ex: Celtic, which stopped being
written after the 1st century.
4. Economic expansion
The empire had harbors, mines, quarries, brickyards, and olive oil factories.
Wheat, wine, and olive oil were traded largely from Spain, Gaul, North Africa, Egypt, and Italy.
Wine & olive oil were carried in amphorae; Monte Testaccio in Rome had over 50 million vessels.
Spanish olive oil transported by Dressel 20 containers & spread widely, competing with Italian oil.
Large landowners competed for markets; olive estates dominated production in the 3rd and 4th
centuries.
After 425, North Africa declined; Aegean, southern Asia Minor, Syria, and Palestine became
major exporters.
Prosperity of regions depended on how well they produced, transported, and sold goods.
Fertile regions included Campania, Sicily, Fayum, Galilee, Byzacium, southern Gaul, and Baetica;
Campania had best wine, Sicily and Byzacium supplied wheat, Galilee was densely farmed,
Spanish olive oil came from Guadalquivir estates/Baetica
Between the birth of Christ and the early 7th century, Rome and Iran were powerful empires
ruling most of Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East, divided by the Euphrates River and
dominating most of the known world.
1. The early empire
From the birth of Christ to the early 7th century, Rome and Iran were powerful empires
ruling most of Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East, separated by the Euphrates
River.
The Roman Empire was more diverse than Iran, with many cultures and languages—Latin
in the west, Greek in the east—all united under one emperor.
I. Army, senate and emperor
Emperor:-
o Augustus became the first emperor in 27 BCE and started the Principate, calling himself the
“leading citizen.”
o The emperor was the head of the army and ruled under a hereditary monarchy.
o Augustus respected the Senate, reduced its powers, and built roads, fire, and police
departments.
o He was earlier called Octavian; the name “Augustus” was given by senators.
o Tiberius, his stepson, abolished the Assembly and expanded the empire north.
o Caligula ruled well at first but became cruel later.
o Claudius held the first official census at Rome.
o Nero was a cruel ruler who killed his mother, wives, and teacher, and blamed Christians for
the fire in Rome.
o Vespasian built the Roman Colosseum.
o Trajan conquered lands up to the Euphrates and dreamed of conquering India.
o Emperors were judged by how they treated the Senate; cruel ones were disliked.
Senate
o The Senate was the main law-making body of educated and intelligent members.
o Those only who were highly literate and intelligent can be senates
o No law could pass without the Senate’s approval and all important decisions are taken by them
o It represented rich Roman and Italian landowners.
o Many senators wanted the Republic back but knew it was impossible.
Army
o The Roman army was paid, not conscripted like the Iranian army.
o Soldiers served at least 25 years and got fixed salaries.
o The army was large, disciplined, and respected.
o It helped defend and expand the empire.
o Roman was known for fighting, engineering skills and rigorous training
o The army could choose emperors and sometimes revolted for better pay.
o The Senate feared the army’s power and violence.
o Succes of an army depend on the control of army, when armies were divided, it led to civil war
Rome merged kingdoms into provinces.
By the early 2nd century, kingdoms west of the Euphrates became part of Rome.
Some kingdoms were very rich; Herod’s kingdom gave 5.4 million denarii yearly (about 125,000
kg of gold).
Except Italy, all territories were provinces and paid taxes.
At its peak, Rome stretched from Scotland to Armenia and from the Sahara to the Euphrates,
with about 60 million people.
Cities like Carthage, Alexandria, and Antioch helped the emperor control the empire and collect
taxes.
, Local upper classes worked with Rome to govern and collect taxes, forming a new powerful class.
Provincial elites became stronger than senators; Emperor Gallienus stopped senators from
commanding the army.
Cities had magistrates, councils, and villages; villages could become cities as imperial favor.
Cities gave better food, baths, and entertainment, with shows lasting up to 176 days per year
2. 3rd century crisis
The first and second centuries were mostly peaceful, prosperous, and growing economically.
The third century showed the first major internal problems.
From the 230s, Rome had to fight on many borders simultaneously.
In 225, the Sasanian dynasty appeared in Iran & extend upto Euphrates within 15 years
Shapur I claimed he killed 60,000 soldiers and captured Antioch.
Germanic tribes like the Alamanni, Franks, and Goths attacked the Rhine and Danube.
From 233 to 280, repeated attacks affected provinces from the Black Sea to the Alps and
southern Germany.
Rome lost its much land beyond the Danube, & emperors constantly fought the “barbarians.”
Rapid change of emperors (25 in 47 years) showing political instability
3. Gender, literacy and culture
Roman families were nuclear; adult sons rarely lived with parents, brothers did not share
households, but slaves were part of the family.
By the late Republic, wives had property rights from their families; dowry went to the husband
during marriage, but the wife kept inheritance from her mother.
Married couples were legally separate; divorce was easy, but husbands were older than wives,
marriages were arranged, and women could be dominated by husbands.
Fathers had strong legal control over children, including the power to expose abandon them
Literacy rates was uneven across the Roman Empire.
In Pompeii (buried in 79 CE), many people could read & write casually/ was widespread literacy
Streets of Pompeii had advertisements and graffiti everywhere.
In Egypt, documents were written by professional scribes; soldiers, officers, and estate managers
who were literate, but many people could not.
The Roman Empire had many religions, local gods, languages, clothes, food, social systems, and
settlement patterns.
Aramaic was common western Euphrates, Coptic in Egypt, Punic and Berber in North Africa, and
Celtic in Spain and northwest.
Many languages were only spoken at first; Armenian was written in the 5th century, while Coptic
Bible existed by the mid-3rd century.
Latin spread widely and replaced other written languages. Ex: Celtic, which stopped being
written after the 1st century.
4. Economic expansion
The empire had harbors, mines, quarries, brickyards, and olive oil factories.
Wheat, wine, and olive oil were traded largely from Spain, Gaul, North Africa, Egypt, and Italy.
Wine & olive oil were carried in amphorae; Monte Testaccio in Rome had over 50 million vessels.
Spanish olive oil transported by Dressel 20 containers & spread widely, competing with Italian oil.
Large landowners competed for markets; olive estates dominated production in the 3rd and 4th
centuries.
After 425, North Africa declined; Aegean, southern Asia Minor, Syria, and Palestine became
major exporters.
Prosperity of regions depended on how well they produced, transported, and sold goods.
Fertile regions included Campania, Sicily, Fayum, Galilee, Byzacium, southern Gaul, and Baetica;
Campania had best wine, Sicily and Byzacium supplied wheat, Galilee was densely farmed,
Spanish olive oil came from Guadalquivir estates/Baetica
