Chapter 9 human development

Development The pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs throughout life, involving both growth and decline. Nature An individual's biological inheritance, especially his or her genes. Preferential Looking A research technique that involves giving an infant a choice of what object to look at. Accommodation An individual's adjustment of his or her schemas to new information. Assimilation An individual's incorporation of new information into existing knowledge. Sensorimotor Stage Piaget's first stage of cognitive development, lasting from birth to about 2 years of age, during which infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with motor (physical) actions. Preoperational Stage Piaget's second stage of cognitive development, lasting from about 2 to 7 years of age, during which thought is more symbolic than sensorimotor thought. Concrete Operational Stage Piaget's third stage of cognitive development, lasting from about 7 to 11 years of age, during which the individual uses operations and replaces intuitive reasoning with logical reasoning in concrete situations. Formal Operational Stage Piaget's fourth stage of cognitive development, which begins at age 11 to 15 and continues through the adulthood; it features thinking about things that are not concrete, making predictions, and using logic to come up with hypotheses about the future. Temperament An individual's behavioral style and characteristic way of responding. Secure Attachment The ways that infants use their caregiver, usually their mother, as a secure base from which to explore the environment. Infant Attachment The close emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver. Secure Attachment The ways that infants use their caregiver, usually their mother, as a secure base from which to explore the environment. Authoritarian Parenting A restrictive, punitive style in which the parent exhorts the child to follow the parent's directions and to value hard work and effort. Authoritative Parenting A parenting style that encourages the child to be independent but that still places limits and controls on behavior. Neglectful Parenting A parenting style characterized by a lack of parental involvement in the child's life. Permissive Parenting A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior. Prosocial Behavior Behavior that is intended to benefit other people. Puberty A period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation that occurs mainly in early adolescence. Androgens The main class of male sex hormones. Estrogens The main class of female sex hormones. Identity vs. Identity Confusion Erikson's fifth psychological stage, in which adolescents face the challenge of finding out who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life. Emerging Adulthood The transitional period from adolescence to adulthood, spanning approximately 18 to 25 years of age. Wisdom Expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life. Physical Processes Involve changes in an individual's biological nature. adolescence The transition period lasting from the onset of puberty to the beginning of adulthood. adulthood The period beginning when the individual assumes responsibility for her or his own life. autonomy versus shame and doubt Erikson's developmental stage in which success is achieved by gaining a degree of independence from one's parents. (Toddler 1.5-3 years) childhood The period that extends from birth until the onset of puberty. cohort A group of people of the same age group. conservation The realization that changing the form of a substance does not change its amount. conventional level In Kohlberg's theory, the level of moral reasoning characterized by concern with upholding laws and conventional values and by favoring obedience to authority. cross-sectional research A research design in which groups of participants of different ages are compared at the same point in time. crystallized intelligence The form of intelligence that reflects knowledge acquired through schooling and in everyday life. developmental psychology The field that studies physical, perceptual, cognitive, and psychosocial changes across the life span. egocentrism The inability to perceive reality from the perspective of another person. fetal alcohol syndrome A disorder, marked by physical defects and mental retardation, that can afflict the offspring of women who drink alcohol during pregnancy. cognitive processes Involve changes in an individual's thought, intelligence, and language. Socioemotional Processes Involve changes in an individual's relationships with other people, in emotions, and in personality. Longitudinal Study Assesses the same participants multiple times over a lengthy period. Genotype An individuals genetic heritage. Phenotype The person's observable characteristics. Phenylketonuria (PKU) Results in an inability to metabolize phenylalanine. Demonstrated that a person's observable and measurable characteristics(phenotype) might not reflect his or her genetic heritage(genotype) very precisely because of the particular experiences the person has had. Life Themes In our efforts to experience our lives in optimal ways, we develop life themes that involve activities, social relationships, and life goals. Resilience A person's ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times. Prenatal Development "Before Birth". Begins with contraception. Development from zygote to fetus. Germinal Period Begins with conception. 1-2 weeks. Embryonic Period Weeks 3-8. The rate of cell differentiation intensifies, support systems for the cells develop, and the beginnings of organs appear. Fetal Period Months 2-9. The last 3 months of pregnancy are the time when organ functioning increases and the fetus puts on considerable weight and size, adding baby fat. fluid intelligence The form of intelligence that reflects reasoning ability, memory capacity, and speed of information processing. formal operational stage The Piagetian stage, beginning at about age 11, marked by the ability to use abstract reasoning and to solve problems by testing hypotheses. gender roles The behaviors that are considered appropriate for females or males in a given culture. gender schema theory A theory of gender-role development that combines aspects of social learning theory and the cognitive perspective. generativity versus stagnation Erikson's developmental stage in which success is achieved by becoming less self-absorbed and more concerned with the well-being of others. (Middle adulthood; 40s and 50s) identity versus identity confusion Erikson's developmental stage in which success is achieved by establishing a sense of personal identity. (Adolescence; 10-20 years) industry versus inferiority Erikson's developmental stage in which success is achieved by developing a sense of competency. (Middle and Late Childhood) infancy The period that extends from birth through 2 years of age. initiative versus guilt Erikson's developmental stage in which success is achieved by behaving in a spontaneous but socially appropriate way. (early childhood; 3-5 years) integrity versus despair Erikson's developmental stage in which success is achieved by reflecting back on one's life and finding that it has been meaningful. (Late Adulthood; 60s) intimacy versus isolation Erikson's developmental stage in which success is achieved by establishing a relationship with a strong sense of emotional attachment and personal commitment. (Early adulthood; 20s 30s) maturation The sequential unfolding of inherited predispositions in physical and motor development. menarche The beginning of menstruation, usually occurring between the ages of 11 and 13. object permanence The realization that objects exist even when they are no longer visible. postconventional level In Kohlberg's theory, the level of moral reasoning characterized by concern with obeying mutually agreed upon laws and by the need to uphold human dignity. preconventional level In Kohlberg's theory, the level of moral reasoning characterized by concern with the consequences that behavior has for ones self preoperational stage The Piagetian stage, extending from 2 to 7 years of age, during which the child's use of language becomes more sophisticated but the child has difficulty with the logical mental manipulation of information. puberty The period of rapid physical change that occurs during adolescence, including the development of the ability to reproduce sexually. schema A cognitive structure that organizes information and provides a structure for interpreting it. sensorimotor stage The Piagetian stage, from birth through the second year, during which the infant learns to coordinate sensory experiences and motor behaviors. social attachment A strong emotional relationship between an infant and a caregiver. social clock The typical or expected timing of major life events in a given culture. social learning theory A theory of learning that assumes that people learn behaviors mainly through observation and mental processing of information. spermarche The first ejaculation, usually occurring between the ages of 13 and 15. teratogen A noxious substance, such as a virus or drug, that can cause prenatal defects. transitive inference The application of previously learned relationships to infer new relationships. trust versus mistrust Erikson's developmental stage in which success is achieved by having a secure social attachment with a caregiver. (infancy; birth-1.5 years) preterm infant One who is born prior to 37 weeks after conception. Synapse A gap between neurons that is bridged by chemical neurotransmitters. Cognitive Development How thought, intelligence, and language processes change as people mature. Cognition Refers to the way individuals think and also to their cognitive skills and abilities. Actively Construct Piaget believed that children actively construct their cognitive world as they go through a series of stages. Operations Mental representations that are reversible Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning Denotes adolescents' ability to develop hypotheses about ways to solve a problem such as an algebraic equation. Scaffolding Interactions that allows the child's cognitive ability to be built higher and higher. The Easy Child Generally is in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routine in infancy, and easily adapts to new experiences. The Difficult Child Tends to react negatively and to cry frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept new experiences. The Slow to Warm Up Child Has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, is inflexible, and displays a low intensity of mood. Strange Situation In this procedure, caregivers leave infants alone with a stranger and then return. Children's responses to this situation are used to classify their attachment style Kohlberg's Theory Based on story of stealing. Answers were based on moral responses. Pre-conventional Level Based Primarily on punishments and rewards from the external world. Stage 1- Heteronomous Morality Stage 2- Individualism, Purpose, and Exchange Conventional Level The individual abides by standards such as those learned from parents or society's laws. Stage 3- Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships, and Interpersonal Conformity Stage 4- Social System Morality Post Conventional Level The individual recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options, and then develops an increasingly moral code. Stage 5-Social Contract or Utility and Individual Rights Stage 6- Universal Ethical Principles Gilligan Argues that Kohlberg's approach does not give adequate attention to relationships. Justice Perspective Focuses on the rights of the individual as the key to sound moral reasoning. Care Perspective Views people in terms of their connectedness with others and emphasizes interpersonal communication, relationships, and concern for others. Adolescent Egocentrism involves the individual's belief that others are as preoccupied with him or her as the adolescent himself or herself is and that the individual is both unique and invincible. Identity Status A person's position in the development of an identity. Commitment Involves making a decision about which identity path to follow and making a personal investment in attaining that identity. Biculturalism Identifing in some ways with their ethnic minority group and in other ways with the majority culture.