Caregiver-infant interaction
Attachment:
A two way emotional bond between two people, usually the mother and infant that endures over time and is
long.
Background information-not needed for exam
The formation of an attachment bond is thought to be vital to healthy development and in particular social
development.
Infancy refers to the period of a child's life before speech develops. Therefore an infant will interact with its
care-givers using non-verbal communication. Psychologists have become very interested in caregiver-infant
interactions as it has been suggested that this interaction helps develop and maintain the attachment bond
between an infant and the main caregiver (usually the mother). Research has suggested the more sensitive a
care-giver is to the child's needs (interacts more) the better the quality of attachment developed.
Two features of the caregiver-infant interaction are:
1. Reciprocity
2. Interactional synchrony.
Reciprocity:
Where the caregiver and infant respond to each other's signals and evoke a response from each other. This
type of communication is often referred to as 'turn taking'. It's like when adults have conservation. One adult
speaks and then it's the turn of the other adult to speak. An example in infancy would be a baby smiles and
this elicits a response in the caregiver.
Interactional synchrony:
It is slightly different to reciprocity and this is when the caregiver and infant interact responding in time, they
tend to mirror each other's facial and body movements. This will include imitating emotions as well as
behaviours. For example, the infant and caregiver open their mouths at the same time.
Melzoff and Moore (1977)
Aim: Conducted the first systematic study of interactional synchrony.
Method: An adult model displayed one of three facial expressions or one of three hand movements to infants
aged 12-21 days old. A dummy was placed in the infant's mouth during the initial display to prevent response.
After the display the dummy was removed the child's response was filmed on video. The films were then
watched by independent observers and the responses from the infants identified from the behavioural
categories given.
Findings: There was an association between the infant behaviour and that of the adult model. This was seen
in infants as young as two-three weeks old.
Conclusion: Infants appear to imitate adults expressions and movements (interactional synchrony).
Evaluation of research into the caregiver-infant interaction
1) A strength of the research is it uses a controlled method to study interactional synchrony. As both the
adult and infant are filmed which ensure no behaviour is missed. Also the behaviour is then analysed
by independent judges which means interactional synchrony is being measured rather than general
behaviours. This increases the validity of the study.
, 2) Although the research has given us a controlled method for studying synchrony and reciprocity it does
not tell us why this interaction is important. Therefore further research is needed in order to understand
the importance of the interaction.
3) Finally during the observation infants were seen to imitate facial and hand movements which was as
indication of caregiver-infant interaction. However, we cannot be sure that this communication was
intentional.
Schaffer and Emerson (1964)
Schaffer and Emerson (1964)
Aim:
Describe the stages of attachment
Sample:
60 mothers and their infants from skilled working class families in Glasgow.
Method:
Mother and babies were observed in their home every month for the first 12 months and then once at 18
months. The mothers were also interviewed on the types of protest their babies showed in seven everyday
separations. Data was collected on separation and stranger anxiety to measure attachment.
Findings:
1) Most of the babies showed separation anxiety by the age of 6-8 months to one attach- ment figure.
2) By the age of 18 months 87% of the babies had at least two attachments.
Conclusion:
There appears to be a pattern of attachment seen in all infants. Those who were sensi- tive to the infants
needs were more likely to form an attachment.
Stages of attachment
Schaffer proposed the following stages of attachment:
1. Pre-attachment phase ( 0-3 months)
○ Smile at anyone
○ Behaviour towards human and objects is similar
○ Towards the end of this stage they start to prefer humans over objects
2. Indiscriminate attachment phase ( 3-7/8 months)
○ Prefer familiar to unfamiliar faces
○ Accept comfort from any adult
○ Enjoy being around humans
3. Discriminate attachment phase ( 7/8 months onwards)
○ Develop a primary attachment to one caregiver (the per- son who is most sensitive to their
needs and offers most interaction)
○ Show separation anxiety
○ Show stranger anxiety
4. Multiple attachments stage (9 months onwards)
○ Form secondary attachments with other caregivers (e.g. grandparents, siblings, their other
parent).
○ Anxiety surrounding strangers weakens.
, Multiple attachments - role of the father
Research study one
Grossman (2002) carried out a longitudinal study looking at both parent's behaviour and its relationship to the
quality of the child's attachments into their teens. Results showed the quality of the infants attachment to the
mother (but not the father) influenced the quality of the child's attachments in adolescence.
Research study three
Children with secure attachments to their fathers go onto have better relationships with their peers, less
problem behaviours and are more able to regulate their emotions.
Research study two
MacCallum and Golombok (2004) found children growing up in single or same-sex parent families do not
develop any differently to those in two-parent heterosexual families.
Research study four
Geiger (1996) showed fathers' play interactions are more exciting and pleasurable than mothers, while
mothers are more nurturing and affectionate.
So is the father important?
1) Traditionally the role of the father was not seen as important and instead it was the mother that was the
key to a child's development as they were more nurturing. This can be seen is research by Grossman
who found the quality of the infants attachment to the mother (but not the father) influenced the quality
of the child's attachments in adolescence. Therefore implying the father is not important.
2) However, other research has shown the father to be important in a child's development and in fact
children who have a secure attachment to their father are more likely to have better relationships with
their peers and less problem behaviour.
3) Interestingly, research has seen the father as less of a caregiver and more a playmate as research has
found the father provides more exciting and pleasurable play than the mother.
4) Finally, if the father is the main caregiver they can quickly adapt and be nurturing and sensitive to the
children's needs like the mother.
Economic Implications
● Increasingly fathers remain at home and therefore contribute less to the economy consequently more
mothers may return to work and contribute to the economy
● Changing laws on paternity leave-government-funded so affects the economy; impact upon employers
● Gender pay gap may be reduced if parental roles are regarded as more equal. Less women taking
career breaks to raise children.
Types of attachment
Types of attachment:
1. Secure attachment
2. Insecure-avoidant
3. Insecure-resistant
These attachment styles are between a child and primary caregiver (usually the mother). They are seen as
patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving in interpersonal situations.
Mary Ainsworth Background
Attachment:
A two way emotional bond between two people, usually the mother and infant that endures over time and is
long.
Background information-not needed for exam
The formation of an attachment bond is thought to be vital to healthy development and in particular social
development.
Infancy refers to the period of a child's life before speech develops. Therefore an infant will interact with its
care-givers using non-verbal communication. Psychologists have become very interested in caregiver-infant
interactions as it has been suggested that this interaction helps develop and maintain the attachment bond
between an infant and the main caregiver (usually the mother). Research has suggested the more sensitive a
care-giver is to the child's needs (interacts more) the better the quality of attachment developed.
Two features of the caregiver-infant interaction are:
1. Reciprocity
2. Interactional synchrony.
Reciprocity:
Where the caregiver and infant respond to each other's signals and evoke a response from each other. This
type of communication is often referred to as 'turn taking'. It's like when adults have conservation. One adult
speaks and then it's the turn of the other adult to speak. An example in infancy would be a baby smiles and
this elicits a response in the caregiver.
Interactional synchrony:
It is slightly different to reciprocity and this is when the caregiver and infant interact responding in time, they
tend to mirror each other's facial and body movements. This will include imitating emotions as well as
behaviours. For example, the infant and caregiver open their mouths at the same time.
Melzoff and Moore (1977)
Aim: Conducted the first systematic study of interactional synchrony.
Method: An adult model displayed one of three facial expressions or one of three hand movements to infants
aged 12-21 days old. A dummy was placed in the infant's mouth during the initial display to prevent response.
After the display the dummy was removed the child's response was filmed on video. The films were then
watched by independent observers and the responses from the infants identified from the behavioural
categories given.
Findings: There was an association between the infant behaviour and that of the adult model. This was seen
in infants as young as two-three weeks old.
Conclusion: Infants appear to imitate adults expressions and movements (interactional synchrony).
Evaluation of research into the caregiver-infant interaction
1) A strength of the research is it uses a controlled method to study interactional synchrony. As both the
adult and infant are filmed which ensure no behaviour is missed. Also the behaviour is then analysed
by independent judges which means interactional synchrony is being measured rather than general
behaviours. This increases the validity of the study.
, 2) Although the research has given us a controlled method for studying synchrony and reciprocity it does
not tell us why this interaction is important. Therefore further research is needed in order to understand
the importance of the interaction.
3) Finally during the observation infants were seen to imitate facial and hand movements which was as
indication of caregiver-infant interaction. However, we cannot be sure that this communication was
intentional.
Schaffer and Emerson (1964)
Schaffer and Emerson (1964)
Aim:
Describe the stages of attachment
Sample:
60 mothers and their infants from skilled working class families in Glasgow.
Method:
Mother and babies were observed in their home every month for the first 12 months and then once at 18
months. The mothers were also interviewed on the types of protest their babies showed in seven everyday
separations. Data was collected on separation and stranger anxiety to measure attachment.
Findings:
1) Most of the babies showed separation anxiety by the age of 6-8 months to one attach- ment figure.
2) By the age of 18 months 87% of the babies had at least two attachments.
Conclusion:
There appears to be a pattern of attachment seen in all infants. Those who were sensi- tive to the infants
needs were more likely to form an attachment.
Stages of attachment
Schaffer proposed the following stages of attachment:
1. Pre-attachment phase ( 0-3 months)
○ Smile at anyone
○ Behaviour towards human and objects is similar
○ Towards the end of this stage they start to prefer humans over objects
2. Indiscriminate attachment phase ( 3-7/8 months)
○ Prefer familiar to unfamiliar faces
○ Accept comfort from any adult
○ Enjoy being around humans
3. Discriminate attachment phase ( 7/8 months onwards)
○ Develop a primary attachment to one caregiver (the per- son who is most sensitive to their
needs and offers most interaction)
○ Show separation anxiety
○ Show stranger anxiety
4. Multiple attachments stage (9 months onwards)
○ Form secondary attachments with other caregivers (e.g. grandparents, siblings, their other
parent).
○ Anxiety surrounding strangers weakens.
, Multiple attachments - role of the father
Research study one
Grossman (2002) carried out a longitudinal study looking at both parent's behaviour and its relationship to the
quality of the child's attachments into their teens. Results showed the quality of the infants attachment to the
mother (but not the father) influenced the quality of the child's attachments in adolescence.
Research study three
Children with secure attachments to their fathers go onto have better relationships with their peers, less
problem behaviours and are more able to regulate their emotions.
Research study two
MacCallum and Golombok (2004) found children growing up in single or same-sex parent families do not
develop any differently to those in two-parent heterosexual families.
Research study four
Geiger (1996) showed fathers' play interactions are more exciting and pleasurable than mothers, while
mothers are more nurturing and affectionate.
So is the father important?
1) Traditionally the role of the father was not seen as important and instead it was the mother that was the
key to a child's development as they were more nurturing. This can be seen is research by Grossman
who found the quality of the infants attachment to the mother (but not the father) influenced the quality
of the child's attachments in adolescence. Therefore implying the father is not important.
2) However, other research has shown the father to be important in a child's development and in fact
children who have a secure attachment to their father are more likely to have better relationships with
their peers and less problem behaviour.
3) Interestingly, research has seen the father as less of a caregiver and more a playmate as research has
found the father provides more exciting and pleasurable play than the mother.
4) Finally, if the father is the main caregiver they can quickly adapt and be nurturing and sensitive to the
children's needs like the mother.
Economic Implications
● Increasingly fathers remain at home and therefore contribute less to the economy consequently more
mothers may return to work and contribute to the economy
● Changing laws on paternity leave-government-funded so affects the economy; impact upon employers
● Gender pay gap may be reduced if parental roles are regarded as more equal. Less women taking
career breaks to raise children.
Types of attachment
Types of attachment:
1. Secure attachment
2. Insecure-avoidant
3. Insecure-resistant
These attachment styles are between a child and primary caregiver (usually the mother). They are seen as
patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving in interpersonal situations.
Mary Ainsworth Background
