Content Analysis
A method for analysing qualitative data of various kinds (spoken, written, media).
Using this method data can be placed in categories and counted (quantitative) or analysed in
themes (qualitative).
How do you conduct a content analysis?
1. Researcher creates a list of operationalized categories relevant to the research aim.
2. Analyse the qualitative data and count or tally every time one of the categories is
evident.
3. Compare the data (e.g. before and after).
Positive:
● A strength of a content analysis is that it is flexible depending upon the research aim
as it allows for qualitative and quantitative data to be analysed.
● Allows psychologists to get around ethical issues that typically arise in psychological
research. For example, when studying material on the TV, newspaper, etc. there is
no need to gain consent as it is already in the public domain.
Negative:
● A weakness of a content analysis is that it may lack objectivity as the researchers
own biases or preconceptions may influence the categories/coding system used and
the way in which the data is interpreted therefore reducing the validity of the findings.
● A further weakness is if using categories and converting to quantitative data the
richness and complexity of the qualitative data is lost.
● Thematic analysis is very time consuming and increases cost.
Scientific method - features of science
Science is a systematic approach to creating knowledge. In order to gain scientific
knowledge in psychology the scientific method is used. There are certain criteria that must
be met in order to make something scientific.
What is Science?
● Objectivity
○ Theories are based on observable phenomena (fact) and not on the
investigators personal opinion, prejudices or emotion. It must not influence
the data collected or the participants behaviour.
○ Must keep a critical distance.
○ To be truly objective research needs to be in a controlled condition.
● Replicability
, ○ The ability for procedures and/or findings to be reproduced or repeated to
determine the validity.
○ Allowing investigators to check and verify other psychologist’s information.
For a theory to be trusted the findings must be shown across a number of
contexts and circumstances.
○ This means procedures need to be recorded in detail.
● Use of Empirical Methods
○ The empirical method refers to behaviour that can be directly observed and
tested scientifically allowing researchers to use the findings to develop
existing theories or to introduce new ones. This method collects facts.
○ Experimental and observational methods are a good example.
● Falsifiability
○ Part of the verification process is the idea of falsifiability, where a scientific
theory or hypothesis must be empirically testable to see if it is false.
○ A scientific theory is constantly challenged.
○ Replication is the accepted way of determining this.
○ Freud’s Psychodynamic approach is criticised for being unfalsifiable, as Freud
place interpretations on behaviours that couldn't be tested empirically to see if
they were false. I.e. unconscious actions.
○ Popper proposed the hypothetico-deductive model of science and is credited
with advancing empirical falsification into scientific methods and procedures.
He explained how one example of falsification is enough to render a theory
untrue.
○ Hypothetico-deductive model is where a theory or hypothesis is assumed to
be correct and is then tested in various ways to see if it stands up. Theories
are continuously modified or replaced in light of new evidence.
○ Popper sees falsifiability as being the determining line between what is and
isn't scientific.
Until the end of the 17th century Europeans had held a strong conviction that all swans were
white. They had seen them in the local village ponds, however in 1697 the first sighting of a
black swan undermined the notion that all swans are white.
Why are these an important feature of science?
● Replicability:
Key part of theory testing as it allows researchers to verify results and methods so that true
conclusions are being drawn. The only way to do this is to repeat the studies/findings. It also
allows the methods to be tested to check for flaws or bias, meaning hypotheses can be
checked.
, Unlikely that the same result occurs twice due to chance. Effects observed are reliable.
● Empirical methods:
Ensure the claims made by theories are true. As conducted in a scientific way (controlled)
allows for replicability.
● Objectivity:
This is at the heart of the scientific method as it ensures data is collected in a controlled way
which means cause and effect can be drawn.
Conventions of a psychological report
Methods section of a psychological research report
Abstract
● Purpose: A brief summary of the study to allow individuals to decide if it is relevant to
them and if they want to continue reading the full report.
● What's included: Aim/participants/method/what involved/results/conclusion
Introduction
A method for analysing qualitative data of various kinds (spoken, written, media).
Using this method data can be placed in categories and counted (quantitative) or analysed in
themes (qualitative).
How do you conduct a content analysis?
1. Researcher creates a list of operationalized categories relevant to the research aim.
2. Analyse the qualitative data and count or tally every time one of the categories is
evident.
3. Compare the data (e.g. before and after).
Positive:
● A strength of a content analysis is that it is flexible depending upon the research aim
as it allows for qualitative and quantitative data to be analysed.
● Allows psychologists to get around ethical issues that typically arise in psychological
research. For example, when studying material on the TV, newspaper, etc. there is
no need to gain consent as it is already in the public domain.
Negative:
● A weakness of a content analysis is that it may lack objectivity as the researchers
own biases or preconceptions may influence the categories/coding system used and
the way in which the data is interpreted therefore reducing the validity of the findings.
● A further weakness is if using categories and converting to quantitative data the
richness and complexity of the qualitative data is lost.
● Thematic analysis is very time consuming and increases cost.
Scientific method - features of science
Science is a systematic approach to creating knowledge. In order to gain scientific
knowledge in psychology the scientific method is used. There are certain criteria that must
be met in order to make something scientific.
What is Science?
● Objectivity
○ Theories are based on observable phenomena (fact) and not on the
investigators personal opinion, prejudices or emotion. It must not influence
the data collected or the participants behaviour.
○ Must keep a critical distance.
○ To be truly objective research needs to be in a controlled condition.
● Replicability
, ○ The ability for procedures and/or findings to be reproduced or repeated to
determine the validity.
○ Allowing investigators to check and verify other psychologist’s information.
For a theory to be trusted the findings must be shown across a number of
contexts and circumstances.
○ This means procedures need to be recorded in detail.
● Use of Empirical Methods
○ The empirical method refers to behaviour that can be directly observed and
tested scientifically allowing researchers to use the findings to develop
existing theories or to introduce new ones. This method collects facts.
○ Experimental and observational methods are a good example.
● Falsifiability
○ Part of the verification process is the idea of falsifiability, where a scientific
theory or hypothesis must be empirically testable to see if it is false.
○ A scientific theory is constantly challenged.
○ Replication is the accepted way of determining this.
○ Freud’s Psychodynamic approach is criticised for being unfalsifiable, as Freud
place interpretations on behaviours that couldn't be tested empirically to see if
they were false. I.e. unconscious actions.
○ Popper proposed the hypothetico-deductive model of science and is credited
with advancing empirical falsification into scientific methods and procedures.
He explained how one example of falsification is enough to render a theory
untrue.
○ Hypothetico-deductive model is where a theory or hypothesis is assumed to
be correct and is then tested in various ways to see if it stands up. Theories
are continuously modified or replaced in light of new evidence.
○ Popper sees falsifiability as being the determining line between what is and
isn't scientific.
Until the end of the 17th century Europeans had held a strong conviction that all swans were
white. They had seen them in the local village ponds, however in 1697 the first sighting of a
black swan undermined the notion that all swans are white.
Why are these an important feature of science?
● Replicability:
Key part of theory testing as it allows researchers to verify results and methods so that true
conclusions are being drawn. The only way to do this is to repeat the studies/findings. It also
allows the methods to be tested to check for flaws or bias, meaning hypotheses can be
checked.
, Unlikely that the same result occurs twice due to chance. Effects observed are reliable.
● Empirical methods:
Ensure the claims made by theories are true. As conducted in a scientific way (controlled)
allows for replicability.
● Objectivity:
This is at the heart of the scientific method as it ensures data is collected in a controlled way
which means cause and effect can be drawn.
Conventions of a psychological report
Methods section of a psychological research report
Abstract
● Purpose: A brief summary of the study to allow individuals to decide if it is relevant to
them and if they want to continue reading the full report.
● What's included: Aim/participants/method/what involved/results/conclusion
Introduction
