Research methodes and descriptive statistics
How to formulate a research question?
Theory → research design → Collect data → Data analysis → Answers/knowlegde
Unit 1: What is empirical research?
Article 1: Decision making & research
Six phases in decision-making
1. Problem definition and – analysis
2. Design
3. Multi-criteria anlysis, ex ante evaluation
4. Decision-making rules
5. Implementation
6. Ex post evaluation
In those phases you never narrow down all possible options. Empirical questions are questions
that can only be answered by observation.
Applied research is finding a solution for a practical problem by using decision making.
Fundamental research is exploring knowlegde to find new theories or concepts.
1. Problem definition and – analysis
Identify the gap between the current situation (“is”) and the desired situation (“ought”).
Use descriptive research to understand what is happening and how big the problem is. Use
explanatory research to analyze causes and contributing factors. Reliability and validity of data
are crucial; incorrect observations lead to bad decisions. The result is often a set of
requirements or criteria for solutions.
The first impression of a problem may be wrong .
Explanatory research : In explanatory research you first think about potential answers.
The results of this thinking, in many cases based on a literature study, are summarized in a
preliminary answer to this question called a theory.
Explanatory research is important in the problem- and need analysis.
Descriptive research: It collects and presents data to show what is happening or what
something looks like, without explaining why it happens.
It focuses on describing facts, patterns, or characteristics (e.g., who, what, when, how much).
2. Design
• Generate possible solutions using existing knowledge or creative design.
• Options can come from previous cases, literature, or new ideas and prototypes.
• Creativity methods (e.g., brainstorming) help develop alternatives.
, • Design is often iterative, meaning options are continuously improved based on
feedback.
• Empirical research helps identify available solutions and understand user needs.
Iterative: It means repeating steps in a cycle — you create an option, evaluate it, improve it, and
then test it again. Instead of a straight line, the process goes back and forth to gradually make
better decisions or designs.
3. Evaluation
• Compare alternatives using predefined criteria (cost, effectiveness, usability, etc.).
• Empirical research links options to expected outcomes.
• Evaluation methods include literature studies, simulations, pilot tests, and experiments.
• Evidence-based decision-making focuses on solutions proven effective.
• Practical constraints may require heuristics and shortcuts.
4. Decision-making
• Select the preferred option based on evaluation results and priorities.
• Decision-makers must weigh trade-offs between criteria and deal with uncertainty.
• Collective decisions may require rules or negotiation among stakeholders.
• Empirical research does not directly occur here, but it informs the decision through
earlier phases.
5. Implementation
• Execute the chosen solution.
• Implementation involves many practical decisions (resources, communication,
logistics).
• Empirical research can support questions such as adoption, targeting, or operational
efficiency.
• Implementation itself may contain smaller decision cycles.
6. Post- evaluation
• Assess whether the decision achieved its goals and solved the problem.
• Outcome evaluation measures results; process evaluation checks whether plans were
executed properly.
• Empirical research is needed to measure effects and understand success or failure.
• Findings may lead to new decision cycles and improvements.
The practice of social research page 3-13:
,1. What is Social Theory?
• Social theory tries to explain how and why society works.
• Researchers use theories to understand patterns in human behavior and social
structures.
• Theory helps organize observations and guides research questions.
Key idea: Theory = a framework for understanding social reality.
2. Paradigms: Different Ways of Seeing Society
A paradigm is a broad perspective or worldview that shapes how researchers think about
society.
Major Paradigms Discussed:
a. Structural Functionalism
• Society is viewed as a system with interconnected parts.
• Each part contributes to social stability and order.
• Focuses on how institutions work together.
b. Social Conflict Paradigm
• Society is seen as shaped by inequality and power struggles.
• Conflict between groups drives social change.
• Influenced strongly by Marxist thinking.
c. Symbolic Interactionism
• Focuses on everyday interactions and meanings people give to things.
• Looks at small-scale social behavior (micro-level).
• Reality is created through social interaction.
Key idea: Different paradigms lead researchers to ask different questions and interpret data
differently.
3. Macrotheory vs. Microtheory
• Macrotheory: looks at large-scale social structures (institutions, systems, inequality).
• Microtheory: examines small-scale interactions and individual experiences.
Both levels are important and often complement each other.
, 4. Newer and Alternative Paradigms
The text introduces perspectives that challenge traditional theories:
• Feminist paradigms – emphasize gender inequality and women’s experiences.
• Critical race theory – focuses on race, power, and systemic inequality.
• Postmodern perspectives – question objective truth and universal explanations.
• Rational objectivity reconsidered – critiques the idea that research is completely
neutral or bias-free.
Key idea: Modern social research recognizes multiple perspectives and voices.
5. Theory and Research Work Together
• Theory shapes research questions and methods.
• Research findings can support, change, or reject theories.
• Science is an ongoing process of refinement and debate.
Most Important Takeaways
• Social theory helps explain patterns in society.
• Paradigms are big-picture perspectives guiding research.
• Main paradigms: structural functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic interactionism.
• Macro vs. micro approaches study different levels of social life.
• Modern research includes diverse perspectives like feminist and critical race theories.
• Theory and research continuously influence each other.
Words:
Agreement reality: Those things we “know” as part and parcel of the culture we share with
those around us.
Epistemology: The science of knowing; systems of knowledge.
Methodology: The science of finding out; proce dures for scientific investigation
Replication: Repeating an experiment to expose or reduce error.
Theory: FFA systematic explanation for the observations that relate to a particular aspect of life:
juvenile delinquency, for example, or perhaps social stratification or political revolution.
Video’s
Video 1: The emperical cycle
Emperical research: systematically answering empirical questions
Systematically: excluding the possibility that other answers are better that the asnwer we give.
Empericial: about things we can observe
How to formulate a research question?
Theory → research design → Collect data → Data analysis → Answers/knowlegde
Unit 1: What is empirical research?
Article 1: Decision making & research
Six phases in decision-making
1. Problem definition and – analysis
2. Design
3. Multi-criteria anlysis, ex ante evaluation
4. Decision-making rules
5. Implementation
6. Ex post evaluation
In those phases you never narrow down all possible options. Empirical questions are questions
that can only be answered by observation.
Applied research is finding a solution for a practical problem by using decision making.
Fundamental research is exploring knowlegde to find new theories or concepts.
1. Problem definition and – analysis
Identify the gap between the current situation (“is”) and the desired situation (“ought”).
Use descriptive research to understand what is happening and how big the problem is. Use
explanatory research to analyze causes and contributing factors. Reliability and validity of data
are crucial; incorrect observations lead to bad decisions. The result is often a set of
requirements or criteria for solutions.
The first impression of a problem may be wrong .
Explanatory research : In explanatory research you first think about potential answers.
The results of this thinking, in many cases based on a literature study, are summarized in a
preliminary answer to this question called a theory.
Explanatory research is important in the problem- and need analysis.
Descriptive research: It collects and presents data to show what is happening or what
something looks like, without explaining why it happens.
It focuses on describing facts, patterns, or characteristics (e.g., who, what, when, how much).
2. Design
• Generate possible solutions using existing knowledge or creative design.
• Options can come from previous cases, literature, or new ideas and prototypes.
• Creativity methods (e.g., brainstorming) help develop alternatives.
, • Design is often iterative, meaning options are continuously improved based on
feedback.
• Empirical research helps identify available solutions and understand user needs.
Iterative: It means repeating steps in a cycle — you create an option, evaluate it, improve it, and
then test it again. Instead of a straight line, the process goes back and forth to gradually make
better decisions or designs.
3. Evaluation
• Compare alternatives using predefined criteria (cost, effectiveness, usability, etc.).
• Empirical research links options to expected outcomes.
• Evaluation methods include literature studies, simulations, pilot tests, and experiments.
• Evidence-based decision-making focuses on solutions proven effective.
• Practical constraints may require heuristics and shortcuts.
4. Decision-making
• Select the preferred option based on evaluation results and priorities.
• Decision-makers must weigh trade-offs between criteria and deal with uncertainty.
• Collective decisions may require rules or negotiation among stakeholders.
• Empirical research does not directly occur here, but it informs the decision through
earlier phases.
5. Implementation
• Execute the chosen solution.
• Implementation involves many practical decisions (resources, communication,
logistics).
• Empirical research can support questions such as adoption, targeting, or operational
efficiency.
• Implementation itself may contain smaller decision cycles.
6. Post- evaluation
• Assess whether the decision achieved its goals and solved the problem.
• Outcome evaluation measures results; process evaluation checks whether plans were
executed properly.
• Empirical research is needed to measure effects and understand success or failure.
• Findings may lead to new decision cycles and improvements.
The practice of social research page 3-13:
,1. What is Social Theory?
• Social theory tries to explain how and why society works.
• Researchers use theories to understand patterns in human behavior and social
structures.
• Theory helps organize observations and guides research questions.
Key idea: Theory = a framework for understanding social reality.
2. Paradigms: Different Ways of Seeing Society
A paradigm is a broad perspective or worldview that shapes how researchers think about
society.
Major Paradigms Discussed:
a. Structural Functionalism
• Society is viewed as a system with interconnected parts.
• Each part contributes to social stability and order.
• Focuses on how institutions work together.
b. Social Conflict Paradigm
• Society is seen as shaped by inequality and power struggles.
• Conflict between groups drives social change.
• Influenced strongly by Marxist thinking.
c. Symbolic Interactionism
• Focuses on everyday interactions and meanings people give to things.
• Looks at small-scale social behavior (micro-level).
• Reality is created through social interaction.
Key idea: Different paradigms lead researchers to ask different questions and interpret data
differently.
3. Macrotheory vs. Microtheory
• Macrotheory: looks at large-scale social structures (institutions, systems, inequality).
• Microtheory: examines small-scale interactions and individual experiences.
Both levels are important and often complement each other.
, 4. Newer and Alternative Paradigms
The text introduces perspectives that challenge traditional theories:
• Feminist paradigms – emphasize gender inequality and women’s experiences.
• Critical race theory – focuses on race, power, and systemic inequality.
• Postmodern perspectives – question objective truth and universal explanations.
• Rational objectivity reconsidered – critiques the idea that research is completely
neutral or bias-free.
Key idea: Modern social research recognizes multiple perspectives and voices.
5. Theory and Research Work Together
• Theory shapes research questions and methods.
• Research findings can support, change, or reject theories.
• Science is an ongoing process of refinement and debate.
Most Important Takeaways
• Social theory helps explain patterns in society.
• Paradigms are big-picture perspectives guiding research.
• Main paradigms: structural functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic interactionism.
• Macro vs. micro approaches study different levels of social life.
• Modern research includes diverse perspectives like feminist and critical race theories.
• Theory and research continuously influence each other.
Words:
Agreement reality: Those things we “know” as part and parcel of the culture we share with
those around us.
Epistemology: The science of knowing; systems of knowledge.
Methodology: The science of finding out; proce dures for scientific investigation
Replication: Repeating an experiment to expose or reduce error.
Theory: FFA systematic explanation for the observations that relate to a particular aspect of life:
juvenile delinquency, for example, or perhaps social stratification or political revolution.
Video’s
Video 1: The emperical cycle
Emperical research: systematically answering empirical questions
Systematically: excluding the possibility that other answers are better that the asnwer we give.
Empericial: about things we can observe
