BIOL 251: Anatomy & Physiology Exam 1 Study
Guide – Key Concepts, Definitions & Revision
Notes (2026)
Anatomy
the various structures of the body, what they look like, and their relationship
to one another
Gross Anatomy
structures visible to the naked eye
Regional Anatomy
specific regions of the body such as the head or chest
can find organs from different systems in the same region
systemic anatomy
studies the anatomy of each functional body system
systems span across multiple regions
Microscopic Anatomy
deals with structures too small to be seen with the naked eye
Cytology
study of cells
Histology
study of tissues
physiology
how these individual body parts work (or function) on a normal level
principle of complementarity of structure and function
what a structure can do is dependent on its form
bones are hard and hold up most of our body weight
chemical level of organization
atoms and molecules
cellular level of organization
smallest living unit of the body
cells function differently depending on where they are found
tissue level of organization
collections of 2 or more cells that carry out a similar function
Four Basic Types of Tissue
,epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
organ
any structure with two or more tissue types
Organ level of organization
tissues operate together to perform a certain function
Organ System Level of organiztion
multiple organs work together to accomplish a purpose
Organismal Level of Organization
All organ systems working together to keep the organism alive
Necessary Life Function #1 - Maintaining Boundaries
cell level --> cell membranes keep organelles together and separate
intercellular and extracellular fluid
organismal level --> skin holds us together, prevents water loss, and helps
prevent the entrance of pathogens
Necessary Life Function #2- Movement
Cooperation of skeletal and muscular systems to coordinate actions
Necessary Life Function #3- Responsiveness (or Excitability)
Sensing environmental changes and responding to them
Are all cells responsive?
yes to a certain extent, but CNS cells are the most responsive
Necessary Life Function #4- Digestion
Food is broken down to simple molecules to be absorbed to blood and
delivered to various tissues
Necessary Life Function #5- Metabolism
Catabolism, Anabolism, and Cellular Respiration
Catabolism
breaking down
anabolism
building up
cellular respiration
ATP Production through glucose and oxygen
Necessary Life Function #6- Excretion
Removal of Waste produced during digestive and metabolic functions
ex- Digestive waste, urine, respiratory release of CO2
Necessary Life Function #7- Reproduction
Cell Level --> cells must divide for organism to survive
Organismal level --> Production of offspring
,Necessary Life Function #8- Growth
Increase in the number of body cells, or increase in size of individual cells
themselves
anabolic rate must be greater than catabolic rate
Survival Need 1- Nutrients
Brought into the body by ingestion
include carbs, fats, proteins, vitamins and minerals
Survival Need 2- Oxygen
cells can only survive a few minutes without oxygen
Survival Need 3- Water
Primary solvent in the body, provides environment for chemical reactions
and serves as fluid base for secretions and excretion
Survival Need 4 - Endothermy
body temperature must be maintained for chemic processes to occur (98.6)
Survival Need 5- Atmospheric Pressure
breathing and gas exchange occur at an appropriate atmospheric pressure
Homeostasis
maintenance of the internal condition of the body despite a constantly
changing external environment
Variable definition within homeostasis
what is being controlled or regulated
Receptor definition within homeostasis
receives info about a specific variable, produces a message to send to the
control center
Control Center - Homeostasis
interprets message, sends message about solution to the effector
Effector definiton- Homeostasis
structure or organ that makes the change in order to resolve back to
homeostasis
Negative feed back mechanism
Cause the variable to change in a direction that is opposite of the initial
change to prevent severe changes in the body
ex- thermoregulation with shivering and sweating
Positive feedback mechanism
cause the original change of the variable to be enhanced
- Extreme Change!!
, ex- Clotting, and oxytocin release during labor
Imbalance in homeostasis
aging often leads to homeostatic imbalance
control systems become less efficient, making us more susceptible to
disease
oral and digestive cavities
mouth and cavities of the digestive organs
OPEN TO EXTERNAL ENVI
Nasal cavity
within and posterior to nose, part of the respiratory passageway
OPEN TO EXTErNAL ENVI
orbital cavity
orbitals of the skill, kinda open
Middle Ear Cavity
contains bones (ossicles) that transmit sound vibrations
closed off
Synovial Cavities
Are joint cavities, enclosed within the fibrous capsules that surround freely
movable joints of the body i.e. elbow and knee joints.
closed off
Colloids
heterogeneous mixtures composed of large solute particles that DO NOT
settle out
sol-gel transformations
to change reversibly from a fluid (sol) state to a more solid (gel) state (and
back again
example of sol-gel transformation in the body
cytosol of cells changes depending on certain cell activities (cell division,
change in shape, etc.)
suspensions
heterogeneous mixture composed of large solute particles that DO settle
out
example of suspension in the body
Guide – Key Concepts, Definitions & Revision
Notes (2026)
Anatomy
the various structures of the body, what they look like, and their relationship
to one another
Gross Anatomy
structures visible to the naked eye
Regional Anatomy
specific regions of the body such as the head or chest
can find organs from different systems in the same region
systemic anatomy
studies the anatomy of each functional body system
systems span across multiple regions
Microscopic Anatomy
deals with structures too small to be seen with the naked eye
Cytology
study of cells
Histology
study of tissues
physiology
how these individual body parts work (or function) on a normal level
principle of complementarity of structure and function
what a structure can do is dependent on its form
bones are hard and hold up most of our body weight
chemical level of organization
atoms and molecules
cellular level of organization
smallest living unit of the body
cells function differently depending on where they are found
tissue level of organization
collections of 2 or more cells that carry out a similar function
Four Basic Types of Tissue
,epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
organ
any structure with two or more tissue types
Organ level of organization
tissues operate together to perform a certain function
Organ System Level of organiztion
multiple organs work together to accomplish a purpose
Organismal Level of Organization
All organ systems working together to keep the organism alive
Necessary Life Function #1 - Maintaining Boundaries
cell level --> cell membranes keep organelles together and separate
intercellular and extracellular fluid
organismal level --> skin holds us together, prevents water loss, and helps
prevent the entrance of pathogens
Necessary Life Function #2- Movement
Cooperation of skeletal and muscular systems to coordinate actions
Necessary Life Function #3- Responsiveness (or Excitability)
Sensing environmental changes and responding to them
Are all cells responsive?
yes to a certain extent, but CNS cells are the most responsive
Necessary Life Function #4- Digestion
Food is broken down to simple molecules to be absorbed to blood and
delivered to various tissues
Necessary Life Function #5- Metabolism
Catabolism, Anabolism, and Cellular Respiration
Catabolism
breaking down
anabolism
building up
cellular respiration
ATP Production through glucose and oxygen
Necessary Life Function #6- Excretion
Removal of Waste produced during digestive and metabolic functions
ex- Digestive waste, urine, respiratory release of CO2
Necessary Life Function #7- Reproduction
Cell Level --> cells must divide for organism to survive
Organismal level --> Production of offspring
,Necessary Life Function #8- Growth
Increase in the number of body cells, or increase in size of individual cells
themselves
anabolic rate must be greater than catabolic rate
Survival Need 1- Nutrients
Brought into the body by ingestion
include carbs, fats, proteins, vitamins and minerals
Survival Need 2- Oxygen
cells can only survive a few minutes without oxygen
Survival Need 3- Water
Primary solvent in the body, provides environment for chemical reactions
and serves as fluid base for secretions and excretion
Survival Need 4 - Endothermy
body temperature must be maintained for chemic processes to occur (98.6)
Survival Need 5- Atmospheric Pressure
breathing and gas exchange occur at an appropriate atmospheric pressure
Homeostasis
maintenance of the internal condition of the body despite a constantly
changing external environment
Variable definition within homeostasis
what is being controlled or regulated
Receptor definition within homeostasis
receives info about a specific variable, produces a message to send to the
control center
Control Center - Homeostasis
interprets message, sends message about solution to the effector
Effector definiton- Homeostasis
structure or organ that makes the change in order to resolve back to
homeostasis
Negative feed back mechanism
Cause the variable to change in a direction that is opposite of the initial
change to prevent severe changes in the body
ex- thermoregulation with shivering and sweating
Positive feedback mechanism
cause the original change of the variable to be enhanced
- Extreme Change!!
, ex- Clotting, and oxytocin release during labor
Imbalance in homeostasis
aging often leads to homeostatic imbalance
control systems become less efficient, making us more susceptible to
disease
oral and digestive cavities
mouth and cavities of the digestive organs
OPEN TO EXTERNAL ENVI
Nasal cavity
within and posterior to nose, part of the respiratory passageway
OPEN TO EXTErNAL ENVI
orbital cavity
orbitals of the skill, kinda open
Middle Ear Cavity
contains bones (ossicles) that transmit sound vibrations
closed off
Synovial Cavities
Are joint cavities, enclosed within the fibrous capsules that surround freely
movable joints of the body i.e. elbow and knee joints.
closed off
Colloids
heterogeneous mixtures composed of large solute particles that DO NOT
settle out
sol-gel transformations
to change reversibly from a fluid (sol) state to a more solid (gel) state (and
back again
example of sol-gel transformation in the body
cytosol of cells changes depending on certain cell activities (cell division,
change in shape, etc.)
suspensions
heterogeneous mixture composed of large solute particles that DO settle
out
example of suspension in the body
