Democracy & participation
,Spec point Key info Examples
1 DEMOCRACY & Direct democracy- citizens make important E.g. of a referendum- Brexit 2016
PARTICIPATION decisions. (52% ‘Leave’)
- referendums (pro-engages public, con-
1.1 Current systems of doesn’t protect minority, can be used as E.g. of an e-petition- feb 2026
representative democracy a means to satisfy sections of parties) petition over holding a public
and direct - e-petitions (pro-increase awareness, inquiry into Russian influence in
democracy. con- potentially platforms extremist UK politics after the conviction
ideas) of Nathan Gill who was taking
• The features of direct - recall of MPs bribes to promote pro-Putin
democracy and - open primaries (pro-public engagement views when serving as an MEP.
representative democracy. in local politics, cons-risk of tactical The govt responded by
voting) announcing significant electoral
• The similarities and - consultative exercises (pros- important reforms to strengthen safeguards
differences between direct to understand public opinion, con- often against foreign interference in
democracy symbolic more than a genuine effort to the Elections Bill.
and representative listen)
democracy. - political leadership elections (pros- E.g. of direct democracy
Advantages and leader more liked by party so more influencing govt policy- the PM
disadvantages of direct support, con- not many members of the abandoned plans to introduce
democracy and public vote in these) compulsory digital IDs for
representative democracy workers, instead the scheme was
and consideration of the Representative democracy- citizens elect a made optional. The decision
case for representative to govern on their behalf. They’re followed significant pressure
reform. held accountable through elections. from the public & BB MPs.
Labour MP Emma Lewell called
Strengths of UK democracy: the scheme a ‘mess’ and cited
1 Established tradition & stability over 5000 of her constituents
2 Representative democracy who signed a petition opposing
3 Free & fair elections the measure. A parliamentary
4 Rule of Law e-petition gained almost 3mn
5 Protection of civil liberties signatures with support from
6 Active civil society PGs like Liberty who were
7 Devolution of powers concerned about mass
surveillance.
Similarities: popular sovereignty, voting &
elections, legitimacy due to consent from the E.g. of a recall- 2019 Fiona
governed, uphold rights Onasanya sentenced to 3mths in
Differences: direct decision-making power vs prison for convicting the court of
elected rep, direct isn’t efficient for complex justice and 25% of constituents
societies, rep has less frequent elections , signed a recall petition.
populism easier via direct (majority rule), rep
usually has safeguards to tyranny of the majority, E.g. of political leadership
rep offers diversity, lack of accountability for election- in 2020 Starmer won
direct dem. Labour by 56%.
✔️Pros of direct: engages the public and E.g. of consultative exercise-
lawmakers/representatives informed of public over the expansion of Heathrow
✖️
attitudes. Airport.
Cons: doesn’t balance conflicting interests or
protect the minority, can undermine the Burkean E.g. of presidentialisation-
principle, refs can oversimplify complex problems Margaret Thatcher.
✔️Pros of representative: practical & efficient, E.g. of inequalities in political
parties give people a choice of representative & influence- British Gas has
pressure groups represent different interests pressured the UK govt by
(plurality), reduces chance of tyranny of the warning of price hikes, job cuts,
majority, elections, in theory politicians are or market withdrawal in
✖️
knowledgeable about political issues response to policy
Cons: encourages tactical voting, changes—using its influence and
unrepresentative of minority, reduced lobbying to protect profits and
participation, politicians skilful in avoiding weaken regulations.
accountability, corruption, party loyalty
E.g. of referendums not
, Arguments & ideas for reform: protecting minority rights- 2009
1 FPTP often results in a mismatch between % of in Switzerland a referendum
votes & seats obtained. banning the building of minarets
- Replace with PR due to the white majority.
- Yet in 2011 68% voted against replacing
FPTP E.g of under-16s showing
2 Voter disengagement- undermines the political enthusiasm- in the 2014
legitimacy of democratic institutions. Scottish Indyref, 75% of 16-17
- Compulsory voting y/o’s voted.
- Political education initiatives
- More referendums
- digital democracy
- Reduce voting age
- Allow prisoners to vote
3 HofL lacks legitimacy
- Fully elected/appointed or hybrid model
4 Concentration of power in the Executive- can
overshadow parliamentary oversight.
- Strengthen local govt
- Further devolution
5 Inequalities in political influence- wealthy
groups exert disproportionate pressure on
policymakers.
- Public consultation
- More weight to e-petitions
- Greater recall
1.2 A wider franchise and The Great Reform Act 1832-84 E.g. of Suffragette action- Emily
debates over suffrage. - Abolished many rotten boroughs & Davison throwing herself in front
redistributed parliamentary seats of the King's horse at the 1916
• Key milestones in the - 1832: extended voting rights to men Derby and dying.
widening of the franchise in owning properly worth £10+
relation - 1867: further male suffrage in urban
to class, gender, ethnicity areas
and age, including the 1832 - 1884: extended the vote to agricultural
Great Reform Act and the workers, created more uniform voting
1918, 1928 and 1969 rights across the country
Representation of the
People Acts. The Representation of the People Act 1918-69
- 1918: male suffrage for over 21s
• The work of the regardless of property & some female
suffragists/suffragettes to suffrage (30+ and married to property
extend the franchise. owners)
- 1928: equal suffrage for women
The work of a current - 1948: abolition of plural voting
movement to extend the - 1969: lowered voting age to 18
franchise.
The suffragists were a group that campaigned for
women’s right to vote using peaceful tactics. They
were led by Millicent Fawcett and the NUWSS.
The suffragettes fought for the same cause but
used more militant methods, like hunger strikes.
They were led by Emmeline Pankhurst and the
WSPU.
Post-WW1, women were given equal suffrage.
Some believe this was due to their willingness to
support the war effort, proving their ability to
make a contribution to the vote, thus increasing
representation.
Why was extending the franchise important?
MPs being elected by everyone aged 18+ means
that representatives have to take the concerns of
(nearly) all adults into account, regardless of
gender, class background, ethnicity and so on. It
also has educational benefits as people may be
, encouraged to take an interest in politics if they
know they can choose their MP, for example. It
enhances the UK’s democratic character and helps
to make politicians accountable for their actions.
Current movement: Extend the franchise to
people aged 16+
Pros: digital awareness, representation of youth
interests, equality with other rights (to work, to
have a family), instil long-term voting habits,
enthusiasm indicates political engagement (75% of
16 & 17 y/o’s voted in the 2014 Scottish Indyref).
Cons: don’t have the same ‘stake’ in the country
(pay taxes), political apathy, influence from social
media/parents, lack of maturity, Labour (arguably)
want it out of self interest.
1.3 Pressure groups and What is a pressure group? A broad term for E.g. of a ‘revolving door’ MP-
other influences. groups of people that aim to influence government Francis Maude is a former MP
policy and public opinion by applying pressure on and Minister of Industry but he
• How different pressure policymakers. worked as an advisor for
groups exert influence and OakNorth Bank and the business
how In the face of pressure groups, the government intelligence firm GPW.
their methods and influence often ‘double down’ on policies to seem tough- - D. Cameron was
vary in contemporary don’t want to show signs of weakness to the employed by Greensill
politics. media. Capital upon leaving
office & was paid £1mn
• Case studies of two Types of pressure group: annually due to his
different pressure groups, Sectional- represents the interests of a particular contacts.
highlighting examples of group in society (e.g. The Muslim council of
how their methods and Britain) E.g. of the govt consulting an
influence vary. Causal- promote a particular cause, united by a insider pressure group- BMA
shared interest (e.g. Friends of the Earth) strikes led to September 2024
• Other collective Insider- direct access to key people in government pay deal which secured a
organisations and groups (e.g. British Medical Association). Often the govt cumulative pay increase over 2
including think tanks, seek to consult them for insight into different years for resident doctors.
lobbyists and corporations, sections of society. E.g. of left-leaning think tank-
and their influence on Outsider- demands are inconsistent with the Institute for Public Policy
government and Parliament. party in power (e.g. Extinction Rebellion). Research (IPPR) & The Fabian
Society.
Outsider causal- Extinction Rebellion
- A self organising system E.g. of think tank founder
- Members receive mass mobilisation becoming a politician- Iain
training Duncan Smith was founder of the
- Branded as ‘environmental fanatics’ who Center for Social Justice and was
risk alienating thousands of supporters. appointed as Work and Pensions
- Protests in 2019 cost the Met police £7.5 Secretary in 2004.
million
- A poll found that 54% of British adults E.g. of pressure groups working
are either ‘strongly opposed’ or together- after the ‘March for
‘somewhat opposed’ to XR’s disruptive clean water’ (Nov 2024) organised
actions of shutting down roads and by 130+ groups the govt made a
disturbing public transport. high-profile commitment to cut
- Dec 2025- launches the ‘Insure Our sewage pollution in half by 2030.
Survival’ campaign with protests at
insurer events and headquarters, E.g. of pressure group success-
demanding they stop ensuring new fossil the NFU (National Farmers
fuel projects. Union) used insider and outsider
- Collaborated with Greta Thunberg and tactics (inc 2 meetings with the
scientists to protest the Science PM, submitting evidence to
Museum’s new energy gallery, sponsored select committees and lobbying)
by coal giant Adani to protest against the “farms tax”
Insider sectional- RMT Labour implemented in 2024.
- Since 2004, they have been regularly They succeeded, with DEFRA
consulted on transport issues. announcing the threshold would
- In 2009, they put up anti-EU candidates be increased from £1m to £2.5mn
,Spec point Key info Examples
1 DEMOCRACY & Direct democracy- citizens make important E.g. of a referendum- Brexit 2016
PARTICIPATION decisions. (52% ‘Leave’)
- referendums (pro-engages public, con-
1.1 Current systems of doesn’t protect minority, can be used as E.g. of an e-petition- feb 2026
representative democracy a means to satisfy sections of parties) petition over holding a public
and direct - e-petitions (pro-increase awareness, inquiry into Russian influence in
democracy. con- potentially platforms extremist UK politics after the conviction
ideas) of Nathan Gill who was taking
• The features of direct - recall of MPs bribes to promote pro-Putin
democracy and - open primaries (pro-public engagement views when serving as an MEP.
representative democracy. in local politics, cons-risk of tactical The govt responded by
voting) announcing significant electoral
• The similarities and - consultative exercises (pros- important reforms to strengthen safeguards
differences between direct to understand public opinion, con- often against foreign interference in
democracy symbolic more than a genuine effort to the Elections Bill.
and representative listen)
democracy. - political leadership elections (pros- E.g. of direct democracy
Advantages and leader more liked by party so more influencing govt policy- the PM
disadvantages of direct support, con- not many members of the abandoned plans to introduce
democracy and public vote in these) compulsory digital IDs for
representative democracy workers, instead the scheme was
and consideration of the Representative democracy- citizens elect a made optional. The decision
case for representative to govern on their behalf. They’re followed significant pressure
reform. held accountable through elections. from the public & BB MPs.
Labour MP Emma Lewell called
Strengths of UK democracy: the scheme a ‘mess’ and cited
1 Established tradition & stability over 5000 of her constituents
2 Representative democracy who signed a petition opposing
3 Free & fair elections the measure. A parliamentary
4 Rule of Law e-petition gained almost 3mn
5 Protection of civil liberties signatures with support from
6 Active civil society PGs like Liberty who were
7 Devolution of powers concerned about mass
surveillance.
Similarities: popular sovereignty, voting &
elections, legitimacy due to consent from the E.g. of a recall- 2019 Fiona
governed, uphold rights Onasanya sentenced to 3mths in
Differences: direct decision-making power vs prison for convicting the court of
elected rep, direct isn’t efficient for complex justice and 25% of constituents
societies, rep has less frequent elections , signed a recall petition.
populism easier via direct (majority rule), rep
usually has safeguards to tyranny of the majority, E.g. of political leadership
rep offers diversity, lack of accountability for election- in 2020 Starmer won
direct dem. Labour by 56%.
✔️Pros of direct: engages the public and E.g. of consultative exercise-
lawmakers/representatives informed of public over the expansion of Heathrow
✖️
attitudes. Airport.
Cons: doesn’t balance conflicting interests or
protect the minority, can undermine the Burkean E.g. of presidentialisation-
principle, refs can oversimplify complex problems Margaret Thatcher.
✔️Pros of representative: practical & efficient, E.g. of inequalities in political
parties give people a choice of representative & influence- British Gas has
pressure groups represent different interests pressured the UK govt by
(plurality), reduces chance of tyranny of the warning of price hikes, job cuts,
majority, elections, in theory politicians are or market withdrawal in
✖️
knowledgeable about political issues response to policy
Cons: encourages tactical voting, changes—using its influence and
unrepresentative of minority, reduced lobbying to protect profits and
participation, politicians skilful in avoiding weaken regulations.
accountability, corruption, party loyalty
E.g. of referendums not
, Arguments & ideas for reform: protecting minority rights- 2009
1 FPTP often results in a mismatch between % of in Switzerland a referendum
votes & seats obtained. banning the building of minarets
- Replace with PR due to the white majority.
- Yet in 2011 68% voted against replacing
FPTP E.g of under-16s showing
2 Voter disengagement- undermines the political enthusiasm- in the 2014
legitimacy of democratic institutions. Scottish Indyref, 75% of 16-17
- Compulsory voting y/o’s voted.
- Political education initiatives
- More referendums
- digital democracy
- Reduce voting age
- Allow prisoners to vote
3 HofL lacks legitimacy
- Fully elected/appointed or hybrid model
4 Concentration of power in the Executive- can
overshadow parliamentary oversight.
- Strengthen local govt
- Further devolution
5 Inequalities in political influence- wealthy
groups exert disproportionate pressure on
policymakers.
- Public consultation
- More weight to e-petitions
- Greater recall
1.2 A wider franchise and The Great Reform Act 1832-84 E.g. of Suffragette action- Emily
debates over suffrage. - Abolished many rotten boroughs & Davison throwing herself in front
redistributed parliamentary seats of the King's horse at the 1916
• Key milestones in the - 1832: extended voting rights to men Derby and dying.
widening of the franchise in owning properly worth £10+
relation - 1867: further male suffrage in urban
to class, gender, ethnicity areas
and age, including the 1832 - 1884: extended the vote to agricultural
Great Reform Act and the workers, created more uniform voting
1918, 1928 and 1969 rights across the country
Representation of the
People Acts. The Representation of the People Act 1918-69
- 1918: male suffrage for over 21s
• The work of the regardless of property & some female
suffragists/suffragettes to suffrage (30+ and married to property
extend the franchise. owners)
- 1928: equal suffrage for women
The work of a current - 1948: abolition of plural voting
movement to extend the - 1969: lowered voting age to 18
franchise.
The suffragists were a group that campaigned for
women’s right to vote using peaceful tactics. They
were led by Millicent Fawcett and the NUWSS.
The suffragettes fought for the same cause but
used more militant methods, like hunger strikes.
They were led by Emmeline Pankhurst and the
WSPU.
Post-WW1, women were given equal suffrage.
Some believe this was due to their willingness to
support the war effort, proving their ability to
make a contribution to the vote, thus increasing
representation.
Why was extending the franchise important?
MPs being elected by everyone aged 18+ means
that representatives have to take the concerns of
(nearly) all adults into account, regardless of
gender, class background, ethnicity and so on. It
also has educational benefits as people may be
, encouraged to take an interest in politics if they
know they can choose their MP, for example. It
enhances the UK’s democratic character and helps
to make politicians accountable for their actions.
Current movement: Extend the franchise to
people aged 16+
Pros: digital awareness, representation of youth
interests, equality with other rights (to work, to
have a family), instil long-term voting habits,
enthusiasm indicates political engagement (75% of
16 & 17 y/o’s voted in the 2014 Scottish Indyref).
Cons: don’t have the same ‘stake’ in the country
(pay taxes), political apathy, influence from social
media/parents, lack of maturity, Labour (arguably)
want it out of self interest.
1.3 Pressure groups and What is a pressure group? A broad term for E.g. of a ‘revolving door’ MP-
other influences. groups of people that aim to influence government Francis Maude is a former MP
policy and public opinion by applying pressure on and Minister of Industry but he
• How different pressure policymakers. worked as an advisor for
groups exert influence and OakNorth Bank and the business
how In the face of pressure groups, the government intelligence firm GPW.
their methods and influence often ‘double down’ on policies to seem tough- - D. Cameron was
vary in contemporary don’t want to show signs of weakness to the employed by Greensill
politics. media. Capital upon leaving
office & was paid £1mn
• Case studies of two Types of pressure group: annually due to his
different pressure groups, Sectional- represents the interests of a particular contacts.
highlighting examples of group in society (e.g. The Muslim council of
how their methods and Britain) E.g. of the govt consulting an
influence vary. Causal- promote a particular cause, united by a insider pressure group- BMA
shared interest (e.g. Friends of the Earth) strikes led to September 2024
• Other collective Insider- direct access to key people in government pay deal which secured a
organisations and groups (e.g. British Medical Association). Often the govt cumulative pay increase over 2
including think tanks, seek to consult them for insight into different years for resident doctors.
lobbyists and corporations, sections of society. E.g. of left-leaning think tank-
and their influence on Outsider- demands are inconsistent with the Institute for Public Policy
government and Parliament. party in power (e.g. Extinction Rebellion). Research (IPPR) & The Fabian
Society.
Outsider causal- Extinction Rebellion
- A self organising system E.g. of think tank founder
- Members receive mass mobilisation becoming a politician- Iain
training Duncan Smith was founder of the
- Branded as ‘environmental fanatics’ who Center for Social Justice and was
risk alienating thousands of supporters. appointed as Work and Pensions
- Protests in 2019 cost the Met police £7.5 Secretary in 2004.
million
- A poll found that 54% of British adults E.g. of pressure groups working
are either ‘strongly opposed’ or together- after the ‘March for
‘somewhat opposed’ to XR’s disruptive clean water’ (Nov 2024) organised
actions of shutting down roads and by 130+ groups the govt made a
disturbing public transport. high-profile commitment to cut
- Dec 2025- launches the ‘Insure Our sewage pollution in half by 2030.
Survival’ campaign with protests at
insurer events and headquarters, E.g. of pressure group success-
demanding they stop ensuring new fossil the NFU (National Farmers
fuel projects. Union) used insider and outsider
- Collaborated with Greta Thunberg and tactics (inc 2 meetings with the
scientists to protest the Science PM, submitting evidence to
Museum’s new energy gallery, sponsored select committees and lobbying)
by coal giant Adani to protest against the “farms tax”
Insider sectional- RMT Labour implemented in 2024.
- Since 2004, they have been regularly They succeeded, with DEFRA
consulted on transport issues. announcing the threshold would
- In 2009, they put up anti-EU candidates be increased from £1m to £2.5mn
