UNIT I: Motivation and Emotion
2 Marks Answers (From Feldman)
1. Define motivation
Motivation is the factors that direct and energize the behavior of humans and other
organisms. (Feldman)
2. Name two eating disorders
· Anorexia nervosa
· Bulimia nervosa
3. What are eating disorders?
Eating disorders are intense, extreme disturbances in eating behavior, such as anorexia
nervosa and bulimia nervosa, that can have severe psychological and physical
consequences. (Feldman)
5 Marks Answers (From Feldman)
1. Maslow's hierarchy of needs
According to Feldman, Maslow's hierarchy of needs proposes that people are motivated by a
hierarchy of needs, starting with the most fundamental and moving toward the highest-level
needs:
•Physiological needs: The most basic requirements for survival, including hunger, thirst, and
sleep. These must be satisfied before any other need becomes motivating.
•Safety needs: The need for a secure environment, free from threats of physical or
psychological harm. This includes shelter, security, and stability.
•Love and belongingness needs: The desire to be accepted by others, to form friendships, to
give and receive affection, and to be part of a group.
•Esteem needs: The desire for respect, a sense of personal worth, and recognition from
others. This includes both self-esteem and esteem from others.
•Self-actualization: The highest level, representing the need to fulfill one's potential and
become the best one is capable of becoming. According to Maslow, only a small percentage
of people reach this level.
Feldman emphasizes that Maslow believed lower-level needs must be at least partially
satisfied before higher-level needs become motivating.
2. McClelland's theory
McClelland's theory of motivation, as presented in Feldman, focuses on three basic
motivating needs that are learned through life experiences:
•Need for achievement (nAch): A stable, learned characteristic in which a person strives to
attain success and to meet standards of excellence. People high in this need seek
moderately challenging tasks, desire concrete feedback, and prefer to take personal
responsibility for outcomes.
•Need for power (nPow): The desire to control, influence, or be responsible for others.
Individuals with high power needs seek positions of leadership, enjoy persuading others, and
are concerned with maintaining their reputation and influence.
,•Need for affiliation (nAff): The desire to establish and maintain warm, close, intimate
relationships with others. People with strong affiliation needs prefer cooperative situations
over competitive ones and desire approval from others.
Feldman notes that these needs are shaped by cultural and environmental factors and
influence workplace behavior and personal relationships.
3. Neuroscience of emotions
Feldman explains that the neuroscience of emotions involves understanding how specific
brain structures and neurochemicals produce emotional experiences:
•The limbic system: A network of brain structures including the amygdala (emotional
memory, especially fear), hippocampus (memory formation), and hypothalamus (regulates
physiological aspects of emotions).
•The amygdala: Plays a central role in emotional processing, particularly fear and
aggression. Feldman notes that electrical stimulation of the amygdala can produce feelings
of fear or rage, while damage impairs emotional recognition.
•The prefrontal cortex: Responsible for regulating emotional responses, impulse control, and
decision-making about emotional situations.
•Autonomic nervous system: The sympathetic division arouses the body during emotional
experiences (fight-or-flight), while the parasympathetic division calms the body afterward.
•Neurotransmitters and hormones: Dopamine (pleasure and reward), serotonin (mood
regulation), norepinephrine (arousal), and hormones like cortisol (stress) and adrenaline
(excitement) all contribute to emotional experience.
Feldman emphasizes that emotions involve complex interactions between these brain
regions, not isolated structures.
15 Marks Answers (From Feldman)
1. Elaborate on the theories of emotions
According to Feldman, several major theories attempt to explain how emotions occur:
•The James-Lange Theory: Proposed independently by William James and Carl Lange, this
theory suggests that emotions result from physiological reactions to events. The sequence
is: stimulus → physiological response → emotional experience. For example, we see a bear
(stimulus), we tremble (physiological response), and then we feel afraid (emotion). In other
words, we feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, and afraid because we
tremble.
•The Cannon-Bard Theory: Walter Cannon and Philip Bard challenged the James-Lange
theory, arguing that physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously
but independently. According to this theory, the thalamus sends signals simultaneously to the
autonomic nervous system (creating physiological arousal) and to the cerebral cortex
(creating emotional experience). Thus, when we see a bear, we simultaneously tremble and
feel afraid.
•Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory: Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed that
emotions depend on two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation (labeling)
of that arousal. When we experience unexplained arousal, we look to the environment for
cues to label what we feel. If we encounter a bear and feel aroused, we interpret the arousal
as fear. This theory explains why the same physiological state can be interpreted as different
emotions depending on context.
,Cognitive Appraisal Theory (Richard Lazarus): This theory emphasizes that emotions result
from our interpretation (appraisal) of events. Primary appraisal involves determining whether
an event is relevant to our well-being. Secondary appraisal involves evaluating our ability to
cope with the event. Different appraisals produce different emotional responses to the same
event.
The Facial Feedback Hypothesis: This theory suggests that facial expressions not only
reflect emotions but can also influence them. The act of smiling can actually make us feel
happier, and frowning can make us feel sadder. This occurs because facial muscles send
signals to the brain that influence emotional experience.
Feldman notes that no single theory completely explains emotions, and modern approaches
recognize that emotions involve complex interactions between physiological, cognitive, and
environmental factors.
2. Elaborate on the theories of motivation
Feldman presents several major theories of motivation:
Drive-Reduction Theory: Proposed by Clark Hull, this theory suggests that physiological
needs create aroused psychological states called drives that motivate behavior to reduce the
drive and restore homeostasis. A need (such as hunger) produces a drive (hunger pangs)
that motivates behavior (eating) to satisfy the need and return to balance (homeostasis).
Primary drives are innate (hunger, thirst), while secondary drives are learned (achievement,
money).
Arousal Theory: This theory proposes that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level
of arousal. When arousal is too low, we seek stimulation (going to an amusement park).
When arousal is too high, we seek rest (meditation). The Yerkes-Dodson Law states that
performance is best at moderate levels of arousal, with simple tasks requiring higher arousal
and complex tasks requiring lower arousal for optimal performance.
Incentive Theory: This theory emphasizes that external stimuli (incentives) pull us toward
them. Unlike drive-reduction theory's internal pushes, incentives are external rewards that
motivate behavior. Money, praise, grades, and food can all serve as incentives. This theory
explains behavior that is not related to biological needs.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Abraham Maslow proposed that human needs are arranged in
a hierarchy from most basic to most advanced. Physiological needs must be satisfied before
safety needs, then belongingness, esteem, and finally self-actualization. Self-actualization
represents fulfilling one's potential. Maslow later added self-transcendence (helping others
achieve self-actualization) at the top.
Self-Determination Theory (Deci and Ryan): This theory emphasizes three innate
psychological needs: competence (mastering challenges), autonomy (feeling in control), and
relatedness (connecting with others). When these needs are satisfied, intrinsic motivation
flourishes.
, Expectancy-Value Theory: This theory proposes that motivation depends on two factors: the
expectation of success (can I do this?) and the value placed on the goal (do I want this?).
Both must be present for strong motivation.
Feldman notes that motivation is complex and multiple theories are often needed to explain
different aspects of motivated behavior.
UNIT II: Neuroscience and Behaviour
2 Marks Answers (From Feldman)
1. Define neuroscience
Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system, including the brain, spinal cord, and
neuron networks, and its relationship to behavior and mental processes. (Feldman)
2. What are mirror neurons?
Mirror neurons are specialized neurons that fire both when an individual performs an action
and when that individual observes someone else performing the same action, playing a role
in imitation and empathy. (Feldman)
3. Define the endocrine system
The endocrine system is a chemical communication network that sends messages
throughout the body via the bloodstream, using hormones to control and coordinate body
functioning. (Feldman)
4. Name the parts of the nervous system
The nervous system consists of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the
peripheral nervous system (somatic and autonomic divisions). (Feldman)
5. Define neurotransmitters. Name 2 neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that carry messages across the synapse between neurons.
Examples include dopamine (pleasure, movement) and serotonin (mood, sleep). (Feldman)
6. What is the Endocrine system?
The endocrine system is a network of glands that produce and secrete hormones into the
bloodstream to regulate bodily functions including growth, metabolism, and reproduction.
(Feldman)
7. What is the Brain of a human?
The human brain is the organ of the central nervous system that controls thought, memory,
emotion, touch, motor skills, vision, breathing, temperature, and all bodily processes.
(Feldman)
8. What are the 2 main functions of the brain?
The brain controls voluntary behavior and regulates involuntary bodily processes. (Feldman)
9. What does the central core of the brain comprise of?
2 Marks Answers (From Feldman)
1. Define motivation
Motivation is the factors that direct and energize the behavior of humans and other
organisms. (Feldman)
2. Name two eating disorders
· Anorexia nervosa
· Bulimia nervosa
3. What are eating disorders?
Eating disorders are intense, extreme disturbances in eating behavior, such as anorexia
nervosa and bulimia nervosa, that can have severe psychological and physical
consequences. (Feldman)
5 Marks Answers (From Feldman)
1. Maslow's hierarchy of needs
According to Feldman, Maslow's hierarchy of needs proposes that people are motivated by a
hierarchy of needs, starting with the most fundamental and moving toward the highest-level
needs:
•Physiological needs: The most basic requirements for survival, including hunger, thirst, and
sleep. These must be satisfied before any other need becomes motivating.
•Safety needs: The need for a secure environment, free from threats of physical or
psychological harm. This includes shelter, security, and stability.
•Love and belongingness needs: The desire to be accepted by others, to form friendships, to
give and receive affection, and to be part of a group.
•Esteem needs: The desire for respect, a sense of personal worth, and recognition from
others. This includes both self-esteem and esteem from others.
•Self-actualization: The highest level, representing the need to fulfill one's potential and
become the best one is capable of becoming. According to Maslow, only a small percentage
of people reach this level.
Feldman emphasizes that Maslow believed lower-level needs must be at least partially
satisfied before higher-level needs become motivating.
2. McClelland's theory
McClelland's theory of motivation, as presented in Feldman, focuses on three basic
motivating needs that are learned through life experiences:
•Need for achievement (nAch): A stable, learned characteristic in which a person strives to
attain success and to meet standards of excellence. People high in this need seek
moderately challenging tasks, desire concrete feedback, and prefer to take personal
responsibility for outcomes.
•Need for power (nPow): The desire to control, influence, or be responsible for others.
Individuals with high power needs seek positions of leadership, enjoy persuading others, and
are concerned with maintaining their reputation and influence.
,•Need for affiliation (nAff): The desire to establish and maintain warm, close, intimate
relationships with others. People with strong affiliation needs prefer cooperative situations
over competitive ones and desire approval from others.
Feldman notes that these needs are shaped by cultural and environmental factors and
influence workplace behavior and personal relationships.
3. Neuroscience of emotions
Feldman explains that the neuroscience of emotions involves understanding how specific
brain structures and neurochemicals produce emotional experiences:
•The limbic system: A network of brain structures including the amygdala (emotional
memory, especially fear), hippocampus (memory formation), and hypothalamus (regulates
physiological aspects of emotions).
•The amygdala: Plays a central role in emotional processing, particularly fear and
aggression. Feldman notes that electrical stimulation of the amygdala can produce feelings
of fear or rage, while damage impairs emotional recognition.
•The prefrontal cortex: Responsible for regulating emotional responses, impulse control, and
decision-making about emotional situations.
•Autonomic nervous system: The sympathetic division arouses the body during emotional
experiences (fight-or-flight), while the parasympathetic division calms the body afterward.
•Neurotransmitters and hormones: Dopamine (pleasure and reward), serotonin (mood
regulation), norepinephrine (arousal), and hormones like cortisol (stress) and adrenaline
(excitement) all contribute to emotional experience.
Feldman emphasizes that emotions involve complex interactions between these brain
regions, not isolated structures.
15 Marks Answers (From Feldman)
1. Elaborate on the theories of emotions
According to Feldman, several major theories attempt to explain how emotions occur:
•The James-Lange Theory: Proposed independently by William James and Carl Lange, this
theory suggests that emotions result from physiological reactions to events. The sequence
is: stimulus → physiological response → emotional experience. For example, we see a bear
(stimulus), we tremble (physiological response), and then we feel afraid (emotion). In other
words, we feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, and afraid because we
tremble.
•The Cannon-Bard Theory: Walter Cannon and Philip Bard challenged the James-Lange
theory, arguing that physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously
but independently. According to this theory, the thalamus sends signals simultaneously to the
autonomic nervous system (creating physiological arousal) and to the cerebral cortex
(creating emotional experience). Thus, when we see a bear, we simultaneously tremble and
feel afraid.
•Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory: Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed that
emotions depend on two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation (labeling)
of that arousal. When we experience unexplained arousal, we look to the environment for
cues to label what we feel. If we encounter a bear and feel aroused, we interpret the arousal
as fear. This theory explains why the same physiological state can be interpreted as different
emotions depending on context.
,Cognitive Appraisal Theory (Richard Lazarus): This theory emphasizes that emotions result
from our interpretation (appraisal) of events. Primary appraisal involves determining whether
an event is relevant to our well-being. Secondary appraisal involves evaluating our ability to
cope with the event. Different appraisals produce different emotional responses to the same
event.
The Facial Feedback Hypothesis: This theory suggests that facial expressions not only
reflect emotions but can also influence them. The act of smiling can actually make us feel
happier, and frowning can make us feel sadder. This occurs because facial muscles send
signals to the brain that influence emotional experience.
Feldman notes that no single theory completely explains emotions, and modern approaches
recognize that emotions involve complex interactions between physiological, cognitive, and
environmental factors.
2. Elaborate on the theories of motivation
Feldman presents several major theories of motivation:
Drive-Reduction Theory: Proposed by Clark Hull, this theory suggests that physiological
needs create aroused psychological states called drives that motivate behavior to reduce the
drive and restore homeostasis. A need (such as hunger) produces a drive (hunger pangs)
that motivates behavior (eating) to satisfy the need and return to balance (homeostasis).
Primary drives are innate (hunger, thirst), while secondary drives are learned (achievement,
money).
Arousal Theory: This theory proposes that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level
of arousal. When arousal is too low, we seek stimulation (going to an amusement park).
When arousal is too high, we seek rest (meditation). The Yerkes-Dodson Law states that
performance is best at moderate levels of arousal, with simple tasks requiring higher arousal
and complex tasks requiring lower arousal for optimal performance.
Incentive Theory: This theory emphasizes that external stimuli (incentives) pull us toward
them. Unlike drive-reduction theory's internal pushes, incentives are external rewards that
motivate behavior. Money, praise, grades, and food can all serve as incentives. This theory
explains behavior that is not related to biological needs.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Abraham Maslow proposed that human needs are arranged in
a hierarchy from most basic to most advanced. Physiological needs must be satisfied before
safety needs, then belongingness, esteem, and finally self-actualization. Self-actualization
represents fulfilling one's potential. Maslow later added self-transcendence (helping others
achieve self-actualization) at the top.
Self-Determination Theory (Deci and Ryan): This theory emphasizes three innate
psychological needs: competence (mastering challenges), autonomy (feeling in control), and
relatedness (connecting with others). When these needs are satisfied, intrinsic motivation
flourishes.
, Expectancy-Value Theory: This theory proposes that motivation depends on two factors: the
expectation of success (can I do this?) and the value placed on the goal (do I want this?).
Both must be present for strong motivation.
Feldman notes that motivation is complex and multiple theories are often needed to explain
different aspects of motivated behavior.
UNIT II: Neuroscience and Behaviour
2 Marks Answers (From Feldman)
1. Define neuroscience
Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system, including the brain, spinal cord, and
neuron networks, and its relationship to behavior and mental processes. (Feldman)
2. What are mirror neurons?
Mirror neurons are specialized neurons that fire both when an individual performs an action
and when that individual observes someone else performing the same action, playing a role
in imitation and empathy. (Feldman)
3. Define the endocrine system
The endocrine system is a chemical communication network that sends messages
throughout the body via the bloodstream, using hormones to control and coordinate body
functioning. (Feldman)
4. Name the parts of the nervous system
The nervous system consists of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the
peripheral nervous system (somatic and autonomic divisions). (Feldman)
5. Define neurotransmitters. Name 2 neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that carry messages across the synapse between neurons.
Examples include dopamine (pleasure, movement) and serotonin (mood, sleep). (Feldman)
6. What is the Endocrine system?
The endocrine system is a network of glands that produce and secrete hormones into the
bloodstream to regulate bodily functions including growth, metabolism, and reproduction.
(Feldman)
7. What is the Brain of a human?
The human brain is the organ of the central nervous system that controls thought, memory,
emotion, touch, motor skills, vision, breathing, temperature, and all bodily processes.
(Feldman)
8. What are the 2 main functions of the brain?
The brain controls voluntary behavior and regulates involuntary bodily processes. (Feldman)
9. What does the central core of the brain comprise of?
