A&P Comprehensive Final Exam 2026/2027
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
COMPREHENSIVE FINAL EXAMINATION
2026/2027 Academic Year
Exam Instructions
Total Questions: 100 | Time Allowed: 120-150 minutes | Passing Score: 70-75%
Question Types: Single-best-answer, Select-all-that-apply (SATA), Scenario-based items
Alignment: HAPS Learning Outcomes | Evidence-Based Practice | Clinical Correlations
Select the one best answer unless otherwise indicated. For SATA items, select all that apply.
1
, A&P Comprehensive Final Exam 2026/2027
SECTION I: BASIC CHEMISTRY & BIOCHEMISTRY
1. Which of the following best describes the role of enzymes in biochemical reactions?
A. They increase the activation energy required for a reaction
B. They act as catalysts to lower activation energy and speed up reactions
C. They are consumed in the reaction they catalyze
D. They provide energy for endergonic reactions
Correct Answer: B. They act as catalysts to lower activation energy and speed up reactions
Rationale: Enzymes are biological catalysts that lower the activation energy of biochemical reactions
without being consumed. They increase reaction rates by providing an alternative pathway with lower
energy requirements, allowing reactions to proceed more rapidly under physiological conditions.
Enzymes themselves are not used up in the reaction and can be reused repeatedly. Options A, C, and D
are incorrect: enzymes lower (not increase) activation energy, are not consumed, and do not directly
provide energy to drive endergonic reactions.
2. An atom with 6 protons, 6 neutrons, and 4 electrons would be classified as a(n):
A. Neutral carbon atom
B. Cation of carbon with a +2 charge
C. Anion of carbon with a −2 charge
D. Isotope of carbon
Correct Answer: B. Cation of carbon with a +2 charge
Rationale: Carbon has an atomic number of 6, meaning a neutral carbon atom has 6 protons and 6
electrons. This atom has 6 protons and only 4 electrons, resulting in 2 more protons than electrons and
a net positive charge of +2. This makes it a cation (a positively charged ion). It is still carbon because
the number of protons (atomic number) determines element identity, not electron count. It is not an
anion (option C), which would have a negative charge due to excess electrons. It is not neutral (option
A) because it has an unequal number of protons and electrons. Having 6 neutrons matches the most
common isotope carbon-12, so it is not identified as a different isotope based solely on this description
(option D).
3. Which of the following are examples of organic macromolecules found in the human
body? (Select all that apply.)
A. Carbohydrates
B. Lipids
C. Proteins
D. Nucleic acids
E. Water
F. Sodium chloride
Correct Answer: A. Carbohydrates, B. Lipids, C. Proteins
Rationale: Carbohydrates (e.g., glucose, glycogen), lipids (e.g., triglycerides, phospholipids), and
proteins (composed of amino acids) are three of the four major classes of organic macromolecules in
the human body. Nucleic acids (option D) are the fourth class (DNA and RNA) but are composed of
nucleotides rather than being considered traditional organic macromolecules in the context of basic
biochemistry classification in some curricula. Water (option E) and sodium chloride (option F) are
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, A&P Comprehensive Final Exam 2026/2027
inorganic compounds. Carbohydrates serve as a primary energy source, lipids provide energy storage
and form cell membranes, and proteins serve structural, enzymatic, transport, and immune functions.
4. A solution with a pH of 3 has how many more times the concentration of hydrogen ions
(H⁺) compared to a solution with a pH of 6?
A. 3 times
B. 30 times
C. 100 times
D. 1000 times
Correct Answer: D. 1000 times
Rationale: The pH scale is logarithmic, meaning each whole-number change represents a tenfold
difference in H⁺ concentration. The difference between pH 3 and pH 6 is three units, so the H ⁺
concentration difference is 10³ = 1000 times. A pH of 3 is more acidic because it has a higher
concentration of hydrogen ions than a pH of 6. This logarithmic relationship is fundamental to
understanding acid-base physiology, including how the body maintains blood pH within the narrow
range of 7.35–7.45.
SECTION II: CELL STRUCTURE & FUNCTION
5. Which organelle is considered the "powerhouse of the cell" and is the primary site of ATP
production through aerobic cellular respiration?
A. Rough endoplasmic reticulum
B. Golgi apparatus
C. Mitochondria
D. Lysosomes
Correct Answer: C. Mitochondria
Rationale: Mitochondria are the primary site of aerobic cellular respiration, where the Krebs cycle
(citric acid cycle) and electron transport chain generate the majority of ATP (approximately 32–34
ATP per glucose molecule). They have a double membrane with inner folds called cristae that increase
surface area for these metabolic reactions. The rough ER (option A) is involved in protein synthesis and
modification, the Golgi apparatus (option B) packages and sorts proteins, and lysosomes (option D)
contain digestive enzymes for intracellular degradation.
6. During which phase of mitosis do sister chromatids line up at the metaphase plate?
A. Prophase
B. Metaphase
C. Anaphase
D. Telophase
Correct Answer: B. Metaphase
Rationale: During metaphase, sister chromatids align at the cell equator (the metaphase plate) with
spindle fibers attached to their kinetochores. This alignment ensures that each daughter cell will
receive an identical set of chromosomes. In prophase (option A), chromatin condenses into visible
chromosomes and the spindle apparatus forms. In anaphase (option C), sister chromatids separate
and move to opposite poles. In telophase (option D), nuclear envelopes reform around the two sets of
chromosomes. Metaphase is the checkpoint where proper attachment of all chromosomes to spindle
fibers is verified before segregation.
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, A&P Comprehensive Final Exam 2026/2027
7. Which type of membrane transport requires ATP to move substances against their
concentration gradient?
A. Simple diffusion
B. Facilitated diffusion
C. Osmosis
D. Active transport
Correct Answer: D. Active transport
Rationale: Active transport moves substances against (up) their concentration gradient, which
requires energy in the form of ATP. Examples include the sodium-potassium pump (Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase),
which moves 3 Na⁺ out and 2 K⁺ into the cell per cycle. Simple diffusion (option A), facilitated diffusion
(option B), and osmosis (option C) are all passive transport processes that move substances down their
concentration gradient and do not require ATP energy.
8. The fluid mosaic model describes the plasma membrane as composed of:
A. A rigid protein layer with embedded lipids
B. A phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins that can move laterally
C. A carbohydrate layer surrounding a protein core
D. A single layer of phospholipids with cholesterol on the surface
Correct Answer: B. A phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins that can move
laterally
Rationale: The fluid mosaic model, proposed by Singer and Nicolson in 1972, describes the plasma
membrane as a dynamic structure consisting of a phospholipid bilayer with various proteins
(integral/transmembrane and peripheral) floating within it like icebergs in a fluid sea. The "fluid"
refers to the lateral mobility of phospholipids and proteins within the membrane, while "mosaic" refers
to the diverse assortment of proteins scattered throughout. Cholesterol molecules are interspersed
within the bilayer for stability, not on the surface. The membrane is not rigid, and it is not a single
phospholipid layer.
9. During protein synthesis, where does translation occur?
A. In the nucleus
B. On ribosomes in the cytoplasm or rough ER
C. In the Golgi apparatus
D. In the mitochondria
Correct Answer: B. On ribosomes in the cytoplasm or rough ER
Rationale: Translation is the process of synthesizing a polypeptide chain from an mRNA template and
occurs on ribosomes. Free ribosomes in the cytoplasm synthesize proteins that function within the
cytosol, while ribosomes bound to the rough endoplasmic reticulum synthesize proteins destined for
secretion, membranes, or lysosomes. Transcription (option A) occurs in the nucleus where DNA is
copied into mRNA. The Golgi apparatus (option C) modifies and packages proteins but does not
synthesize them. While mitochondria (option D) have their own ribosomes and can synthesize some of
their own proteins, the primary site of translation is cytoplasmic/ER-bound ribosomes.
10. Which of the following processes can move substances across the plasma membrane
without requiring ATP? (Select all that apply.)
A. Simple diffusion of oxygen into cells
B. Osmosis of water across a semipermeable membrane
3
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
COMPREHENSIVE FINAL EXAMINATION
2026/2027 Academic Year
Exam Instructions
Total Questions: 100 | Time Allowed: 120-150 minutes | Passing Score: 70-75%
Question Types: Single-best-answer, Select-all-that-apply (SATA), Scenario-based items
Alignment: HAPS Learning Outcomes | Evidence-Based Practice | Clinical Correlations
Select the one best answer unless otherwise indicated. For SATA items, select all that apply.
1
, A&P Comprehensive Final Exam 2026/2027
SECTION I: BASIC CHEMISTRY & BIOCHEMISTRY
1. Which of the following best describes the role of enzymes in biochemical reactions?
A. They increase the activation energy required for a reaction
B. They act as catalysts to lower activation energy and speed up reactions
C. They are consumed in the reaction they catalyze
D. They provide energy for endergonic reactions
Correct Answer: B. They act as catalysts to lower activation energy and speed up reactions
Rationale: Enzymes are biological catalysts that lower the activation energy of biochemical reactions
without being consumed. They increase reaction rates by providing an alternative pathway with lower
energy requirements, allowing reactions to proceed more rapidly under physiological conditions.
Enzymes themselves are not used up in the reaction and can be reused repeatedly. Options A, C, and D
are incorrect: enzymes lower (not increase) activation energy, are not consumed, and do not directly
provide energy to drive endergonic reactions.
2. An atom with 6 protons, 6 neutrons, and 4 electrons would be classified as a(n):
A. Neutral carbon atom
B. Cation of carbon with a +2 charge
C. Anion of carbon with a −2 charge
D. Isotope of carbon
Correct Answer: B. Cation of carbon with a +2 charge
Rationale: Carbon has an atomic number of 6, meaning a neutral carbon atom has 6 protons and 6
electrons. This atom has 6 protons and only 4 electrons, resulting in 2 more protons than electrons and
a net positive charge of +2. This makes it a cation (a positively charged ion). It is still carbon because
the number of protons (atomic number) determines element identity, not electron count. It is not an
anion (option C), which would have a negative charge due to excess electrons. It is not neutral (option
A) because it has an unequal number of protons and electrons. Having 6 neutrons matches the most
common isotope carbon-12, so it is not identified as a different isotope based solely on this description
(option D).
3. Which of the following are examples of organic macromolecules found in the human
body? (Select all that apply.)
A. Carbohydrates
B. Lipids
C. Proteins
D. Nucleic acids
E. Water
F. Sodium chloride
Correct Answer: A. Carbohydrates, B. Lipids, C. Proteins
Rationale: Carbohydrates (e.g., glucose, glycogen), lipids (e.g., triglycerides, phospholipids), and
proteins (composed of amino acids) are three of the four major classes of organic macromolecules in
the human body. Nucleic acids (option D) are the fourth class (DNA and RNA) but are composed of
nucleotides rather than being considered traditional organic macromolecules in the context of basic
biochemistry classification in some curricula. Water (option E) and sodium chloride (option F) are
1
, A&P Comprehensive Final Exam 2026/2027
inorganic compounds. Carbohydrates serve as a primary energy source, lipids provide energy storage
and form cell membranes, and proteins serve structural, enzymatic, transport, and immune functions.
4. A solution with a pH of 3 has how many more times the concentration of hydrogen ions
(H⁺) compared to a solution with a pH of 6?
A. 3 times
B. 30 times
C. 100 times
D. 1000 times
Correct Answer: D. 1000 times
Rationale: The pH scale is logarithmic, meaning each whole-number change represents a tenfold
difference in H⁺ concentration. The difference between pH 3 and pH 6 is three units, so the H ⁺
concentration difference is 10³ = 1000 times. A pH of 3 is more acidic because it has a higher
concentration of hydrogen ions than a pH of 6. This logarithmic relationship is fundamental to
understanding acid-base physiology, including how the body maintains blood pH within the narrow
range of 7.35–7.45.
SECTION II: CELL STRUCTURE & FUNCTION
5. Which organelle is considered the "powerhouse of the cell" and is the primary site of ATP
production through aerobic cellular respiration?
A. Rough endoplasmic reticulum
B. Golgi apparatus
C. Mitochondria
D. Lysosomes
Correct Answer: C. Mitochondria
Rationale: Mitochondria are the primary site of aerobic cellular respiration, where the Krebs cycle
(citric acid cycle) and electron transport chain generate the majority of ATP (approximately 32–34
ATP per glucose molecule). They have a double membrane with inner folds called cristae that increase
surface area for these metabolic reactions. The rough ER (option A) is involved in protein synthesis and
modification, the Golgi apparatus (option B) packages and sorts proteins, and lysosomes (option D)
contain digestive enzymes for intracellular degradation.
6. During which phase of mitosis do sister chromatids line up at the metaphase plate?
A. Prophase
B. Metaphase
C. Anaphase
D. Telophase
Correct Answer: B. Metaphase
Rationale: During metaphase, sister chromatids align at the cell equator (the metaphase plate) with
spindle fibers attached to their kinetochores. This alignment ensures that each daughter cell will
receive an identical set of chromosomes. In prophase (option A), chromatin condenses into visible
chromosomes and the spindle apparatus forms. In anaphase (option C), sister chromatids separate
and move to opposite poles. In telophase (option D), nuclear envelopes reform around the two sets of
chromosomes. Metaphase is the checkpoint where proper attachment of all chromosomes to spindle
fibers is verified before segregation.
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, A&P Comprehensive Final Exam 2026/2027
7. Which type of membrane transport requires ATP to move substances against their
concentration gradient?
A. Simple diffusion
B. Facilitated diffusion
C. Osmosis
D. Active transport
Correct Answer: D. Active transport
Rationale: Active transport moves substances against (up) their concentration gradient, which
requires energy in the form of ATP. Examples include the sodium-potassium pump (Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase),
which moves 3 Na⁺ out and 2 K⁺ into the cell per cycle. Simple diffusion (option A), facilitated diffusion
(option B), and osmosis (option C) are all passive transport processes that move substances down their
concentration gradient and do not require ATP energy.
8. The fluid mosaic model describes the plasma membrane as composed of:
A. A rigid protein layer with embedded lipids
B. A phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins that can move laterally
C. A carbohydrate layer surrounding a protein core
D. A single layer of phospholipids with cholesterol on the surface
Correct Answer: B. A phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins that can move
laterally
Rationale: The fluid mosaic model, proposed by Singer and Nicolson in 1972, describes the plasma
membrane as a dynamic structure consisting of a phospholipid bilayer with various proteins
(integral/transmembrane and peripheral) floating within it like icebergs in a fluid sea. The "fluid"
refers to the lateral mobility of phospholipids and proteins within the membrane, while "mosaic" refers
to the diverse assortment of proteins scattered throughout. Cholesterol molecules are interspersed
within the bilayer for stability, not on the surface. The membrane is not rigid, and it is not a single
phospholipid layer.
9. During protein synthesis, where does translation occur?
A. In the nucleus
B. On ribosomes in the cytoplasm or rough ER
C. In the Golgi apparatus
D. In the mitochondria
Correct Answer: B. On ribosomes in the cytoplasm or rough ER
Rationale: Translation is the process of synthesizing a polypeptide chain from an mRNA template and
occurs on ribosomes. Free ribosomes in the cytoplasm synthesize proteins that function within the
cytosol, while ribosomes bound to the rough endoplasmic reticulum synthesize proteins destined for
secretion, membranes, or lysosomes. Transcription (option A) occurs in the nucleus where DNA is
copied into mRNA. The Golgi apparatus (option C) modifies and packages proteins but does not
synthesize them. While mitochondria (option D) have their own ribosomes and can synthesize some of
their own proteins, the primary site of translation is cytoplasmic/ER-bound ribosomes.
10. Which of the following processes can move substances across the plasma membrane
without requiring ATP? (Select all that apply.)
A. Simple diffusion of oxygen into cells
B. Osmosis of water across a semipermeable membrane
3
