Introduction to Psychology
Summary of the book ‘Psychology’ and lecture notes
Contents
Chapter 1 – The science of psychology........................................................................................... 6
1.1: History of psychology ................................................................................................................ 6
1.2: Three influential approaches: gestalt, psychoanalysis and behaviourism ..................................... 6
Gestalt ........................................................................................................................................ 6
Psychoanalysis ............................................................................................................................ 6
Behaviourism............................................................................................................................... 7
1.3: Modern Perspectives ................................................................................................................. 7
Psychodynamic perspective ......................................................................................................... 7
Behavioural perspective ............................................................................................................... 7
Humanistic perspective ............................................................................................................... 7
Cognitive perspective ................................................................................................................... 7
Sociocultural perspective ............................................................................................................. 7
Biopsychological perspective ....................................................................................................... 8
Evolutionary perspective .............................................................................................................. 8
1.4: Psychological professionals and areas of specialization .............................................................. 8
1.5: Thinking critically about critical thinking ..................................................................................... 8
1.6: The scientific approach ............................................................................................................. 8
Psychological goals ...................................................................................................................... 8
Steps in scientific approach.......................................................................................................... 9
1.7: Descriptive methods ................................................................................................................. 9
1.8: Correlations: finding relationships ............................................................................................10
1.9: The experiment ........................................................................................................................10
1.10: Experimental hazards and controlling for eOects ......................................................................10
1.11: The guidelines for doing research with people ..........................................................................11
1.12: Animal research .....................................................................................................................11
Chapter 3 – Sensation and Perception .......................................................................................... 11
3.1: Transduction ............................................................................................................................11
3.2: Sensory Thresholds ..................................................................................................................12
3.3: Habituation and Sensory Adaption ............................................................................................12
3.4: Light and the Eye ......................................................................................................................12
3.5: The visual pathway ...................................................................................................................13
3.6: Perception of color ...................................................................................................................14
3.7: Sound waves and the ear ..........................................................................................................14
3.8: Perceiving pitch .......................................................................................................................15
3.9: Types of hearing impairments ...................................................................................................15
3.10: Gustation: how we taste the world...........................................................................................15
1
, 3.11: The sense of scents: Olfaction ................................................................................................16
3.12: Somesthetic senses ...............................................................................................................16
3.13: Body movement and position ..................................................................................................17
3.14: How we organize our perceptions ............................................................................................17
3.15: Depth perception ...................................................................................................................18
3.16: Perceptual illusions ................................................................................................................18
Chapter 5 – Leaning ..................................................................................................................... 19
5.1: Definition of learning ................................................................................................................19
5.2: Pavlov and the salivating dogs ...................................................................................................19
5.3: Classical conditioning applied to human behavior .....................................................................20
5.4: The contributions of Thorndike and Skinner ...............................................................................20
5.5: The concept of reinforcement ...................................................................................................20
5.6: Schedules of reinforcement ......................................................................................................21
5.7: The role of punishment in operant conditioning ..........................................................................21
5.8: Other aspects of operant conditioning.......................................................................................22
5.9: Applications of operant conditioning: shaping and behavior modification ....................................22
5.10: Latent learning .......................................................................................................................22
5.11: Insight learning ......................................................................................................................22
512: Learned helplessness..............................................................................................................22
513: Bandura and the bobo doll .......................................................................................................22
Chapter 6 – Memory ..................................................................................................................... 23
6.1: Three processes of memory ......................................................................................................23
6.2: Models of memory ...................................................................................................................23
6.3: Sensory memory ......................................................................................................................23
6.4: Short-term memory ..................................................................................................................24
6.5: Long-term memory ..................................................................................................................24
6.6: Retrieval cues ..........................................................................................................................25
6.7: Recall and recognition ..............................................................................................................25
6.8: Automatic encoding .................................................................................................................25
6.9: The reconstructive nature of LTM retrieval: how reliable are memories? .......................................25
6.10: Ebbinghaus and the forgetting curve ........................................................................................26
6.11: Reasons we forget ..................................................................................................................26
6.12: The biological bases of memory ..............................................................................................27
6.13: When memory fails: organic amnesia ......................................................................................27
Chapter 7 – Cognition: thinking, intelligence and language ............................................................ 27
7.1: Mental imagery ........................................................................................................................27
7.2: Concepts and prototypes .........................................................................................................27
2
, 7.3: Problem-solving and decision-making strategies .......................................................................28
7.4: Problems with problem solving and decision making .................................................................28
7.5: Creativity .................................................................................................................................28
7.6: Theories of intelligence.............................................................................................................29
7.7: Measuring intelligence .............................................................................................................29
7.8: Test construction: good test, bad test? ......................................................................................29
7.9: Individual diOerences in intelligence .........................................................................................29
710: The nature/nurture issue regarding intelligence .........................................................................30
7.11: Language ...............................................................................................................................30
7.12: Development of language .......................................................................................................30
7.13: The relationship between language and thought.......................................................................31
7.14: Animal studies in language .....................................................................................................31
Chapter 8 – Development across the life span ............................................................................... 31
8.1: Research design ......................................................................................................................31
8.2: Nature and nurture ...................................................................................................................31
8.3: The basic building blocks of development .................................................................................32
8.4: Fertilization ..............................................................................................................................32
8.5: Three stages of development ....................................................................................................32
8.6: Physical development ..............................................................................................................33
8.7: Cognitive development.............................................................................................................33
8.8: Psychosocial development .......................................................................................................34
8.9: Physical development ..............................................................................................................34
8.10: Cognitive development ...........................................................................................................34
8.11: Psychosocial development .....................................................................................................34
8.12: Physical development: use it or lose it .....................................................................................35
8.13: Cognitive development ...........................................................................................................35
8.14: Psychosocial development .....................................................................................................35
8.15: Theories of physical and psychological aging ...........................................................................35
8.16: stages of death and dying .......................................................................................................36
Chapter 9 – Motivation and emotion ............................................................................................. 36
9.1: Defining motivation ..................................................................................................................36
9.2: Early approaches to understanding motivation ..........................................................................36
9.3: DiOerent strokes for diOerent folks: psychological needs ............................................................36
9.4: Arousal and incentive approaches ............................................................................................37
9.5: Humanistic approaches ...........................................................................................................37
9.6: Physiological and social components of hunger .........................................................................37
9.8: The three elements of emotion..................................................................................................38
9.9: Early theories of emotion ..........................................................................................................38
3
, 9.10: Cognitive theories of emotion .................................................................................................39
Chapter 11 – Stress and health ..................................................................................................... 40
11.1: The relationship between stress and stressors .........................................................................40
11.2: Environmental stressors: life’s ups and downs .........................................................................40
11.3: Psychological stressors: what, me worry? ................................................................................40
11.4: The general adaptation syndrome ...........................................................................................41
11.5: The immune system and stress ...............................................................................................41
11.6: Health psychology..................................................................................................................42
11.7: Cognitive factors in stress .......................................................................................................42
11.8: Personality factors in stress ....................................................................................................42
11.9: Social and cultural factors in stress .........................................................................................42
11.10: Coping strategies .................................................................................................................43
11.11: How social support aOects coping.........................................................................................43
11.12: How culture and religion aOect coping ...................................................................................43
Chapter 12 – Social psychology .................................................................................................... 43
12.1: Conformity ............................................................................................................................43
12.2: Group behavior ......................................................................................................................44
12.3: Compliance ...........................................................................................................................44
12.4: Obedience .............................................................................................................................44
12.5: Attitudes ................................................................................................................................44
12.6: Attitude change ......................................................................................................................45
12.7: Cognitive dissonance .............................................................................................................45
12.8: Impression formation .............................................................................................................46
12.9: Attribution..............................................................................................................................46
12.10: Prejudice and discrimination.................................................................................................46
12.11: How people learn and overcome prejudice ............................................................................47
12.12: interpersonal attraction ........................................................................................................47
12.13: Robert Sternberg’s triangular theory of love ............................................................................48
12.14: Aggression ...........................................................................................................................48
12.15: Prosocial behavior ................................................................................................................48
Chapter 13 – Theories of personality ............................................................................................. 49
13.1: Theories of personality ...........................................................................................................49
13.2: Freud’s conception of personality ...........................................................................................49
13.3: Stages of personality development ..........................................................................................50
13.4: The Neo-Freudians .................................................................................................................51
13.5: Current thoughts on Freud and the Psychodynamic perspective ...............................................51
13.6: Learning theories ...................................................................................................................51
4
Summary of the book ‘Psychology’ and lecture notes
Contents
Chapter 1 – The science of psychology........................................................................................... 6
1.1: History of psychology ................................................................................................................ 6
1.2: Three influential approaches: gestalt, psychoanalysis and behaviourism ..................................... 6
Gestalt ........................................................................................................................................ 6
Psychoanalysis ............................................................................................................................ 6
Behaviourism............................................................................................................................... 7
1.3: Modern Perspectives ................................................................................................................. 7
Psychodynamic perspective ......................................................................................................... 7
Behavioural perspective ............................................................................................................... 7
Humanistic perspective ............................................................................................................... 7
Cognitive perspective ................................................................................................................... 7
Sociocultural perspective ............................................................................................................. 7
Biopsychological perspective ....................................................................................................... 8
Evolutionary perspective .............................................................................................................. 8
1.4: Psychological professionals and areas of specialization .............................................................. 8
1.5: Thinking critically about critical thinking ..................................................................................... 8
1.6: The scientific approach ............................................................................................................. 8
Psychological goals ...................................................................................................................... 8
Steps in scientific approach.......................................................................................................... 9
1.7: Descriptive methods ................................................................................................................. 9
1.8: Correlations: finding relationships ............................................................................................10
1.9: The experiment ........................................................................................................................10
1.10: Experimental hazards and controlling for eOects ......................................................................10
1.11: The guidelines for doing research with people ..........................................................................11
1.12: Animal research .....................................................................................................................11
Chapter 3 – Sensation and Perception .......................................................................................... 11
3.1: Transduction ............................................................................................................................11
3.2: Sensory Thresholds ..................................................................................................................12
3.3: Habituation and Sensory Adaption ............................................................................................12
3.4: Light and the Eye ......................................................................................................................12
3.5: The visual pathway ...................................................................................................................13
3.6: Perception of color ...................................................................................................................14
3.7: Sound waves and the ear ..........................................................................................................14
3.8: Perceiving pitch .......................................................................................................................15
3.9: Types of hearing impairments ...................................................................................................15
3.10: Gustation: how we taste the world...........................................................................................15
1
, 3.11: The sense of scents: Olfaction ................................................................................................16
3.12: Somesthetic senses ...............................................................................................................16
3.13: Body movement and position ..................................................................................................17
3.14: How we organize our perceptions ............................................................................................17
3.15: Depth perception ...................................................................................................................18
3.16: Perceptual illusions ................................................................................................................18
Chapter 5 – Leaning ..................................................................................................................... 19
5.1: Definition of learning ................................................................................................................19
5.2: Pavlov and the salivating dogs ...................................................................................................19
5.3: Classical conditioning applied to human behavior .....................................................................20
5.4: The contributions of Thorndike and Skinner ...............................................................................20
5.5: The concept of reinforcement ...................................................................................................20
5.6: Schedules of reinforcement ......................................................................................................21
5.7: The role of punishment in operant conditioning ..........................................................................21
5.8: Other aspects of operant conditioning.......................................................................................22
5.9: Applications of operant conditioning: shaping and behavior modification ....................................22
5.10: Latent learning .......................................................................................................................22
5.11: Insight learning ......................................................................................................................22
512: Learned helplessness..............................................................................................................22
513: Bandura and the bobo doll .......................................................................................................22
Chapter 6 – Memory ..................................................................................................................... 23
6.1: Three processes of memory ......................................................................................................23
6.2: Models of memory ...................................................................................................................23
6.3: Sensory memory ......................................................................................................................23
6.4: Short-term memory ..................................................................................................................24
6.5: Long-term memory ..................................................................................................................24
6.6: Retrieval cues ..........................................................................................................................25
6.7: Recall and recognition ..............................................................................................................25
6.8: Automatic encoding .................................................................................................................25
6.9: The reconstructive nature of LTM retrieval: how reliable are memories? .......................................25
6.10: Ebbinghaus and the forgetting curve ........................................................................................26
6.11: Reasons we forget ..................................................................................................................26
6.12: The biological bases of memory ..............................................................................................27
6.13: When memory fails: organic amnesia ......................................................................................27
Chapter 7 – Cognition: thinking, intelligence and language ............................................................ 27
7.1: Mental imagery ........................................................................................................................27
7.2: Concepts and prototypes .........................................................................................................27
2
, 7.3: Problem-solving and decision-making strategies .......................................................................28
7.4: Problems with problem solving and decision making .................................................................28
7.5: Creativity .................................................................................................................................28
7.6: Theories of intelligence.............................................................................................................29
7.7: Measuring intelligence .............................................................................................................29
7.8: Test construction: good test, bad test? ......................................................................................29
7.9: Individual diOerences in intelligence .........................................................................................29
710: The nature/nurture issue regarding intelligence .........................................................................30
7.11: Language ...............................................................................................................................30
7.12: Development of language .......................................................................................................30
7.13: The relationship between language and thought.......................................................................31
7.14: Animal studies in language .....................................................................................................31
Chapter 8 – Development across the life span ............................................................................... 31
8.1: Research design ......................................................................................................................31
8.2: Nature and nurture ...................................................................................................................31
8.3: The basic building blocks of development .................................................................................32
8.4: Fertilization ..............................................................................................................................32
8.5: Three stages of development ....................................................................................................32
8.6: Physical development ..............................................................................................................33
8.7: Cognitive development.............................................................................................................33
8.8: Psychosocial development .......................................................................................................34
8.9: Physical development ..............................................................................................................34
8.10: Cognitive development ...........................................................................................................34
8.11: Psychosocial development .....................................................................................................34
8.12: Physical development: use it or lose it .....................................................................................35
8.13: Cognitive development ...........................................................................................................35
8.14: Psychosocial development .....................................................................................................35
8.15: Theories of physical and psychological aging ...........................................................................35
8.16: stages of death and dying .......................................................................................................36
Chapter 9 – Motivation and emotion ............................................................................................. 36
9.1: Defining motivation ..................................................................................................................36
9.2: Early approaches to understanding motivation ..........................................................................36
9.3: DiOerent strokes for diOerent folks: psychological needs ............................................................36
9.4: Arousal and incentive approaches ............................................................................................37
9.5: Humanistic approaches ...........................................................................................................37
9.6: Physiological and social components of hunger .........................................................................37
9.8: The three elements of emotion..................................................................................................38
9.9: Early theories of emotion ..........................................................................................................38
3
, 9.10: Cognitive theories of emotion .................................................................................................39
Chapter 11 – Stress and health ..................................................................................................... 40
11.1: The relationship between stress and stressors .........................................................................40
11.2: Environmental stressors: life’s ups and downs .........................................................................40
11.3: Psychological stressors: what, me worry? ................................................................................40
11.4: The general adaptation syndrome ...........................................................................................41
11.5: The immune system and stress ...............................................................................................41
11.6: Health psychology..................................................................................................................42
11.7: Cognitive factors in stress .......................................................................................................42
11.8: Personality factors in stress ....................................................................................................42
11.9: Social and cultural factors in stress .........................................................................................42
11.10: Coping strategies .................................................................................................................43
11.11: How social support aOects coping.........................................................................................43
11.12: How culture and religion aOect coping ...................................................................................43
Chapter 12 – Social psychology .................................................................................................... 43
12.1: Conformity ............................................................................................................................43
12.2: Group behavior ......................................................................................................................44
12.3: Compliance ...........................................................................................................................44
12.4: Obedience .............................................................................................................................44
12.5: Attitudes ................................................................................................................................44
12.6: Attitude change ......................................................................................................................45
12.7: Cognitive dissonance .............................................................................................................45
12.8: Impression formation .............................................................................................................46
12.9: Attribution..............................................................................................................................46
12.10: Prejudice and discrimination.................................................................................................46
12.11: How people learn and overcome prejudice ............................................................................47
12.12: interpersonal attraction ........................................................................................................47
12.13: Robert Sternberg’s triangular theory of love ............................................................................48
12.14: Aggression ...........................................................................................................................48
12.15: Prosocial behavior ................................................................................................................48
Chapter 13 – Theories of personality ............................................................................................. 49
13.1: Theories of personality ...........................................................................................................49
13.2: Freud’s conception of personality ...........................................................................................49
13.3: Stages of personality development ..........................................................................................50
13.4: The Neo-Freudians .................................................................................................................51
13.5: Current thoughts on Freud and the Psychodynamic perspective ...............................................51
13.6: Learning theories ...................................................................................................................51
4
