Research methodology and descriptive statistics
Summary test 1
Contents
Unit 1: What is empirical research? ............................................................................................... 2
Unit 2: What are clear research questions?.................................................................................... 3
Unit 3: What are data? .................................................................................................................. 4
Unit 4: handling data with software – R .......................................................................................... 7
Unit 5: Conceptualizing constructs ............................................................................................... 8
Unit 6: Operationalization and data collection .............................................................................. 10
Unit 7: Measuring constructs using content analysis ..................................................................... 12
Unit 8: Two aspects of data quality ............................................................................................... 15
Unit 9: Displaying univariate data in R ........................................................................................... 16
Unit 10: Summarizing ratio variables ............................................................................................ 17
Unit 11: Distributing and Z-scores ................................................................................................ 19
Unit 26: Data collection methods and measurement ..................................................................... 19
,Unit 1: What is empirical research?
Research question: a question that a study or research project, through its thesis
statement, aims to answer
Empirical research: research that is based on observations and measurement, that is
directly experienced by the researcher à research with data
Empirical questions: systematically answering empirical questions
Empirical: about things we can observe
Systematically: excluding the possibility that other answers
are better than the answer we give
Procedure
theory (thinking) à research design (planning) à data
collection (observing) à data analysis
Deduction: Theory and how to test the theory
Induction: data and trying to arrive conclusions
Wheel of science: fundamental research: Theory is a
coherent set of propositions about how a phenomenon can
be explained or predicted
not a logistical sequence of steps: anything goes…
it is a way to defend your conclusions; logic
Type of research
- Problem definition and - analysis: identify, describe and
analyze a problem/opportunity
- Design: develop options/design options
- Mulit-criteria analysis/ex ante (before) analysis:
compare options, using criteria
- Decision making rules: select a preferred alternative based on evaluation
- Implementation/process: act on the decision/implement the decision
Ex post (after) outcome: monitor and evaluate the consequences
Empirical research questions: research question that can only be answered by using
observation à thinking and observing
à they are often asked in the context of decision making
Design & decision making: using data to prioritize users need over design bias
(ontwerp vooroordelen). Design is the evolution of information punctuated by decision-
making. Think of the alternatives, the criteria used to judge the alternatives, and other
information about product and process, as information. And think of decision-making
as the point where we decide what to do next in our search strategy.
2
, Problem and need analysis: encounter problems and identify causes and solutions
Confirmed bias: finding the answers that we ‘want to’ find that confirm pre-existing
beliefs or favored hypotheses by ignoring evidence and/or avoiding critical evaluation.
à why so strong?
- imitations in humans, relying on heuristics
- wishful thinking
- consistency (between initial evidence and new evidence)
à consequences
- mistakes in knowledge
- bad decisions
à avoiding
- systematic data gathering, being aware of what can go wrong
- explicit and complete reasoning
- peer review
Ex ante evaluation: (previous) evaluation of options à can we expect an option to
work? Program monitoring
Process evaluation: tells you how well plans are being put into action and helps
routinely and systematically monitor areas important to making the program a success
Ex post evaluation: (effect/impact research): did the selected option have the expected
outcome? (outcome evaluation)
Unit 2: What are clear research questions?
An empirical research question is only clear if it refers to meaningful:
- unit of analysis: are the object the research question is about
- variables: are the possible characteristics (attributes) of these units
o independent variable: treatments/options/policy
measures/characteristics
o dependent variable: intended outcome/effect measures
- setting: time and place
3
Summary test 1
Contents
Unit 1: What is empirical research? ............................................................................................... 2
Unit 2: What are clear research questions?.................................................................................... 3
Unit 3: What are data? .................................................................................................................. 4
Unit 4: handling data with software – R .......................................................................................... 7
Unit 5: Conceptualizing constructs ............................................................................................... 8
Unit 6: Operationalization and data collection .............................................................................. 10
Unit 7: Measuring constructs using content analysis ..................................................................... 12
Unit 8: Two aspects of data quality ............................................................................................... 15
Unit 9: Displaying univariate data in R ........................................................................................... 16
Unit 10: Summarizing ratio variables ............................................................................................ 17
Unit 11: Distributing and Z-scores ................................................................................................ 19
Unit 26: Data collection methods and measurement ..................................................................... 19
,Unit 1: What is empirical research?
Research question: a question that a study or research project, through its thesis
statement, aims to answer
Empirical research: research that is based on observations and measurement, that is
directly experienced by the researcher à research with data
Empirical questions: systematically answering empirical questions
Empirical: about things we can observe
Systematically: excluding the possibility that other answers
are better than the answer we give
Procedure
theory (thinking) à research design (planning) à data
collection (observing) à data analysis
Deduction: Theory and how to test the theory
Induction: data and trying to arrive conclusions
Wheel of science: fundamental research: Theory is a
coherent set of propositions about how a phenomenon can
be explained or predicted
not a logistical sequence of steps: anything goes…
it is a way to defend your conclusions; logic
Type of research
- Problem definition and - analysis: identify, describe and
analyze a problem/opportunity
- Design: develop options/design options
- Mulit-criteria analysis/ex ante (before) analysis:
compare options, using criteria
- Decision making rules: select a preferred alternative based on evaluation
- Implementation/process: act on the decision/implement the decision
Ex post (after) outcome: monitor and evaluate the consequences
Empirical research questions: research question that can only be answered by using
observation à thinking and observing
à they are often asked in the context of decision making
Design & decision making: using data to prioritize users need over design bias
(ontwerp vooroordelen). Design is the evolution of information punctuated by decision-
making. Think of the alternatives, the criteria used to judge the alternatives, and other
information about product and process, as information. And think of decision-making
as the point where we decide what to do next in our search strategy.
2
, Problem and need analysis: encounter problems and identify causes and solutions
Confirmed bias: finding the answers that we ‘want to’ find that confirm pre-existing
beliefs or favored hypotheses by ignoring evidence and/or avoiding critical evaluation.
à why so strong?
- imitations in humans, relying on heuristics
- wishful thinking
- consistency (between initial evidence and new evidence)
à consequences
- mistakes in knowledge
- bad decisions
à avoiding
- systematic data gathering, being aware of what can go wrong
- explicit and complete reasoning
- peer review
Ex ante evaluation: (previous) evaluation of options à can we expect an option to
work? Program monitoring
Process evaluation: tells you how well plans are being put into action and helps
routinely and systematically monitor areas important to making the program a success
Ex post evaluation: (effect/impact research): did the selected option have the expected
outcome? (outcome evaluation)
Unit 2: What are clear research questions?
An empirical research question is only clear if it refers to meaningful:
- unit of analysis: are the object the research question is about
- variables: are the possible characteristics (attributes) of these units
o independent variable: treatments/options/policy
measures/characteristics
o dependent variable: intended outcome/effect measures
- setting: time and place
3
