NUR 2063 Essentials of Pathophysiology
Exam 3 Study Guide – Chapters: 1-14
1) Define “sign”, “contraindication”.
• Sign: something found during a physical exam or because of a laboratory or
imaging test that shows that a person may have a condition or disease.
• Contraindication: a condition or circumstance that suggests or indicates that
a particular technique or drug should not be used in the case in question.
2) Define homeostasis.
Homeostasis: state of equilibrium, balance, consistency, or stability; in the body,
this self-regulating, give-and-take system responds to minor changes in the body’s
status through compensation mechanisms. Compensation mechanisms attempt to
counteract those changes and return the body to its normal state.
3) Fever is an indicator of homeostatic control in the body.
• Negative Feedback System: most common type, works to maintain a deficit
in the system/resist any change from normal. Examples are temperature and
glucose regulation.
• Positive Feedback System: fewer in number, move the body away from
homeostasis. Example are childbirth, sneezing, and blood clots.
4) Physiological concepts of fight or flight response.
Fight-or-Flight Response: the alarm stage that is generalized stimulation of
sympathetic nervous system, resulting in the release of catecholamines and
cortisol.
• Physiological reactions that occur are tachycardia, dilated pupils, and
hypertension.
5) Function of a ribosome.
• Nucleus: DNA storage
• Nucleolus: oval body in nucleus;
produces RNA/ribosomes.
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
(SER): lipid production;
detoxification.
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
(RER): protein production; for export
out of the cell.
• Ribosomes: small particles aid in
protein production on the RER.
• Golgi Complex: protein modification
and export.
• Mitochondrion: energy production.
, • Peroxisome: lipid destruction; contains oxidative enzymes.
• Lysosome: protein destruction.
6) What triggers the RAAS system?
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS): a vital control and
compensatory mechanism that is activated when renal blood flow is decreased,
often in hypotensive states. When blood flow is decreased to the kidneys,
renin is released from the kidneys, which in turn activates angiotensin I to become
converted to angiotensin II (a vasoconstrictor) and stimulates aldosterone
secretion.
• In hypotensive states, this mechanism raises blood pressure and maintains vital
organs.
• In chronic disease states such as hypertension, it is inappropriately activated
because of vasoconstriction to the kidneys, further contributing to the
hypertension.
7) Intracellular contains high - note which electrolytes.
Intracellular Fluid (ICF): fluid found inside the cell. Comprises 2/3rd of the body’s
water and is rich in potassium, magnesium, phosphate, and proteins.
8) Clinical manifestations of fluid volume overload.
The symptoms of hypervolemia can include: rapid weight gain, swelling (edema) in
arms, legs, face, and abdomen, cramping, headache, stomach bloating, shortness
of breath, high blood pressure, and heart problems.
9) Know components of insensible water loss.
Insensible fluid loss is the amount of body fluid lost daily that is not easily
measured, from the respiratory system, skin, and water in the excreted stool;
sweating and breathing.
10) Define hypovolemia.
Hypovolemia: fluid deficit of the intravascular compartment.
• Thirst, altered level of consciousness, hypotension, tachycardia, weak-thready
pulse, flat jugular veins, dry mucous membranes, decreased skin turgor,
oliguria, weight loss, and sunken fontanelles (in infants)
11) Define hypotonic, hypertonic, isotonic solutions.
• Hypertonic Solution: an intravascular solution that has a higher concentration
of solutes than those in the intravascular compartment; causes fluid to shift
from the intracellular to extracellular space.
• Hypotonic Solutions: an
intravascular solution that
has a lower concentration of
solutes than that found in the
intravascular compartment;
administration causes fluid
to shift from extracellular
to intracellular space.
, • Isotonic Solutions: an intravascular solution that has concentrations of
solutes equal to those in the intravascular compartment; allow fluid to move
equally between compartments. Example: normal saline (0.9% sodium
chloride).
12) How does the body maintain acid-base balance?
pH Balance: the
measure of hydrogen;
the higher the
hydrogen
concentration, the
lower the pH number.
13) Normal pH of
blood.
Normal Range of pH = 7.35 - 7.45
14) Physiologic effect of hyponatremia.
Hyponatremia: condition that results from low serum sodium levels (less than
135 mEq/L). Serum osmolality levels also fall below 275 mOsm. As sodium levels
decrease, water shifts into cells. Brain cells are especially susceptible to this
cellular swelling, which causes cerebral edema.
15) Define osmosis.
Osmosis: passive movement of water/solvent across the cellular membrane from
an area of low solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration.
Movement of FLUIDS between interstitial and intracellular compartments.
The membrane is permeable to the solvent (liquid) not solute (dissolved particles).
16) Define diffusion.
Diffusion: the movement of solutes (particles
dissolved in a solvent) from an area of higher
concentration to lower concentration. Movement
of ELECTROLYLES between interstitial and
interstitial and intracellular compartments.
17) Normal range of Sodium, Chloride,
Potassium, Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, and Bicarbonate.
• Normal Range of Sodium(Na+¿¿): 135 – 145 mEq/L
• Normal Range of Chloride(Cl−¿¿): 98 – 108 mEq/L
• Normal Range of Potassium(K+¿ ¿): 3.5 – 5 mEq/L
• Normal Range of Calcium(Ca++¿¿): 4 – 5 mEq/L
• Normal Range of Phosphorus(P−¿ ¿): 2.5 – 4.5 mEq/L
• Normal Range of Magnesium(Mg++¿¿): 1.8 – 2.4 mEq/L
• Normal Range of Bicarbonate (HCO3): 22 – 26 mEq/L
, 18) Define respiratory acidosis/alkalosis, metabolic acidosis/alkalosis.
• Metabolic Acidosis: condition that results from a deficiency of bicarbonate or
an excess of hydrogen; can cause diarrhea.
• Metabolic Alkalosis: condition that results from an excess of bicarbonate or a
deficiency of hydrogen; can cause vomiting.
• Respiratory Acidosis: condition that results from carbon dioxide retention,
which leads to increased carbonic acid and, in turn, decreased pH; causes
hypercapnia; due to a build-up of CO2 in the system.
• Respiratory Alkalosis: condition that results from excess exhalation of carbon
dioxide, which leads to carbonic acid deficits and pH increases; due to
excessive CO2 loss in the system.
19) Warmth and redness during a cellulitis infection is due to what?
Cellulitis: an infection from bacteria (Staphylococcus) deep in the dermis and
subcutaneous tissue. Usually results from a direct invasion through a break in the
skin, especially those breaches where contamination is likely. Appear as red,
swollen, warm, and painful area of the skin; additionally, systemic
manifestations of infections are usually (fever, chills, leukocytosis, malaise,
and arthralgia).
20) Passive immunity.
Passive Acquired Immunity: refers to immunity gained by receiving antibodies
made outside the body by another person, animal , recombinant DNA. The person
is not actively producing antibodies, and protection is short lived.
• Examples are mother-to-fetus transfer of antibodies via breastmilk
or placenta.
• Artificial Passive Immunity can also occur when a person receives an
injection of antibodies to protect against the effects of a toxin such as snake
venom.
21) Define active acquired immunity.
Active Acquired Immunity: immunity
gained by actively engaging with the antigen
via invasion or vaccination. The person
makes his or her own antibodies, and
protection is usually long term. Examples
are vaccinations (COVID vaccine).
22) Define and know role of monocyte, neutrophile,
macrophages, lymphocytes.
• Monocyte: white blood cells that replenish macrophages and dendritic cells in
normal states and respond to inflammation by migrating to infected tissue to
Exam 3 Study Guide – Chapters: 1-14
1) Define “sign”, “contraindication”.
• Sign: something found during a physical exam or because of a laboratory or
imaging test that shows that a person may have a condition or disease.
• Contraindication: a condition or circumstance that suggests or indicates that
a particular technique or drug should not be used in the case in question.
2) Define homeostasis.
Homeostasis: state of equilibrium, balance, consistency, or stability; in the body,
this self-regulating, give-and-take system responds to minor changes in the body’s
status through compensation mechanisms. Compensation mechanisms attempt to
counteract those changes and return the body to its normal state.
3) Fever is an indicator of homeostatic control in the body.
• Negative Feedback System: most common type, works to maintain a deficit
in the system/resist any change from normal. Examples are temperature and
glucose regulation.
• Positive Feedback System: fewer in number, move the body away from
homeostasis. Example are childbirth, sneezing, and blood clots.
4) Physiological concepts of fight or flight response.
Fight-or-Flight Response: the alarm stage that is generalized stimulation of
sympathetic nervous system, resulting in the release of catecholamines and
cortisol.
• Physiological reactions that occur are tachycardia, dilated pupils, and
hypertension.
5) Function of a ribosome.
• Nucleus: DNA storage
• Nucleolus: oval body in nucleus;
produces RNA/ribosomes.
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
(SER): lipid production;
detoxification.
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
(RER): protein production; for export
out of the cell.
• Ribosomes: small particles aid in
protein production on the RER.
• Golgi Complex: protein modification
and export.
• Mitochondrion: energy production.
, • Peroxisome: lipid destruction; contains oxidative enzymes.
• Lysosome: protein destruction.
6) What triggers the RAAS system?
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS): a vital control and
compensatory mechanism that is activated when renal blood flow is decreased,
often in hypotensive states. When blood flow is decreased to the kidneys,
renin is released from the kidneys, which in turn activates angiotensin I to become
converted to angiotensin II (a vasoconstrictor) and stimulates aldosterone
secretion.
• In hypotensive states, this mechanism raises blood pressure and maintains vital
organs.
• In chronic disease states such as hypertension, it is inappropriately activated
because of vasoconstriction to the kidneys, further contributing to the
hypertension.
7) Intracellular contains high - note which electrolytes.
Intracellular Fluid (ICF): fluid found inside the cell. Comprises 2/3rd of the body’s
water and is rich in potassium, magnesium, phosphate, and proteins.
8) Clinical manifestations of fluid volume overload.
The symptoms of hypervolemia can include: rapid weight gain, swelling (edema) in
arms, legs, face, and abdomen, cramping, headache, stomach bloating, shortness
of breath, high blood pressure, and heart problems.
9) Know components of insensible water loss.
Insensible fluid loss is the amount of body fluid lost daily that is not easily
measured, from the respiratory system, skin, and water in the excreted stool;
sweating and breathing.
10) Define hypovolemia.
Hypovolemia: fluid deficit of the intravascular compartment.
• Thirst, altered level of consciousness, hypotension, tachycardia, weak-thready
pulse, flat jugular veins, dry mucous membranes, decreased skin turgor,
oliguria, weight loss, and sunken fontanelles (in infants)
11) Define hypotonic, hypertonic, isotonic solutions.
• Hypertonic Solution: an intravascular solution that has a higher concentration
of solutes than those in the intravascular compartment; causes fluid to shift
from the intracellular to extracellular space.
• Hypotonic Solutions: an
intravascular solution that
has a lower concentration of
solutes than that found in the
intravascular compartment;
administration causes fluid
to shift from extracellular
to intracellular space.
, • Isotonic Solutions: an intravascular solution that has concentrations of
solutes equal to those in the intravascular compartment; allow fluid to move
equally between compartments. Example: normal saline (0.9% sodium
chloride).
12) How does the body maintain acid-base balance?
pH Balance: the
measure of hydrogen;
the higher the
hydrogen
concentration, the
lower the pH number.
13) Normal pH of
blood.
Normal Range of pH = 7.35 - 7.45
14) Physiologic effect of hyponatremia.
Hyponatremia: condition that results from low serum sodium levels (less than
135 mEq/L). Serum osmolality levels also fall below 275 mOsm. As sodium levels
decrease, water shifts into cells. Brain cells are especially susceptible to this
cellular swelling, which causes cerebral edema.
15) Define osmosis.
Osmosis: passive movement of water/solvent across the cellular membrane from
an area of low solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration.
Movement of FLUIDS between interstitial and intracellular compartments.
The membrane is permeable to the solvent (liquid) not solute (dissolved particles).
16) Define diffusion.
Diffusion: the movement of solutes (particles
dissolved in a solvent) from an area of higher
concentration to lower concentration. Movement
of ELECTROLYLES between interstitial and
interstitial and intracellular compartments.
17) Normal range of Sodium, Chloride,
Potassium, Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, and Bicarbonate.
• Normal Range of Sodium(Na+¿¿): 135 – 145 mEq/L
• Normal Range of Chloride(Cl−¿¿): 98 – 108 mEq/L
• Normal Range of Potassium(K+¿ ¿): 3.5 – 5 mEq/L
• Normal Range of Calcium(Ca++¿¿): 4 – 5 mEq/L
• Normal Range of Phosphorus(P−¿ ¿): 2.5 – 4.5 mEq/L
• Normal Range of Magnesium(Mg++¿¿): 1.8 – 2.4 mEq/L
• Normal Range of Bicarbonate (HCO3): 22 – 26 mEq/L
, 18) Define respiratory acidosis/alkalosis, metabolic acidosis/alkalosis.
• Metabolic Acidosis: condition that results from a deficiency of bicarbonate or
an excess of hydrogen; can cause diarrhea.
• Metabolic Alkalosis: condition that results from an excess of bicarbonate or a
deficiency of hydrogen; can cause vomiting.
• Respiratory Acidosis: condition that results from carbon dioxide retention,
which leads to increased carbonic acid and, in turn, decreased pH; causes
hypercapnia; due to a build-up of CO2 in the system.
• Respiratory Alkalosis: condition that results from excess exhalation of carbon
dioxide, which leads to carbonic acid deficits and pH increases; due to
excessive CO2 loss in the system.
19) Warmth and redness during a cellulitis infection is due to what?
Cellulitis: an infection from bacteria (Staphylococcus) deep in the dermis and
subcutaneous tissue. Usually results from a direct invasion through a break in the
skin, especially those breaches where contamination is likely. Appear as red,
swollen, warm, and painful area of the skin; additionally, systemic
manifestations of infections are usually (fever, chills, leukocytosis, malaise,
and arthralgia).
20) Passive immunity.
Passive Acquired Immunity: refers to immunity gained by receiving antibodies
made outside the body by another person, animal , recombinant DNA. The person
is not actively producing antibodies, and protection is short lived.
• Examples are mother-to-fetus transfer of antibodies via breastmilk
or placenta.
• Artificial Passive Immunity can also occur when a person receives an
injection of antibodies to protect against the effects of a toxin such as snake
venom.
21) Define active acquired immunity.
Active Acquired Immunity: immunity
gained by actively engaging with the antigen
via invasion or vaccination. The person
makes his or her own antibodies, and
protection is usually long term. Examples
are vaccinations (COVID vaccine).
22) Define and know role of monocyte, neutrophile,
macrophages, lymphocytes.
• Monocyte: white blood cells that replenish macrophages and dendritic cells in
normal states and respond to inflammation by migrating to infected tissue to
