Summary Biology Abitur Professional Exam Preparation (Upper Secondary School) – Complete Overview of all key topics from Cell Biology to Evolution

Biology Abitur Lernzettel / Biology exam preparation –
Complete Overview of All Key Topics from Cell Biology
to Evolution

Main information
Subject: Biology
Schulform: High school
Klassenstufe: Abitur (Oberstufe)




1

, Biology Abitur Lernzettel / Biology exam preparation -
Topics for Q1 - Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Metabolism

Cell Biology

 Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
 Structure and function of the nucleus
 Plasmids and genetic material
 Cell organelles and their functions
Membrane Transport

 Passive transport and diffusion
 Facilitated diffusion and channel proteins
 Osmosis and water movement
 Active transport and ATP usage
 Carrier proteins and transport mechanisms
ATP and Energy Processes

 Structure and function of ATP
 Energy release through hydrolysis
 Role of ATP in cellular processes
Neurons, action potential and resting potential

 Functions and types of neurons
 The structure of the sodium-potassium pump (how it works)
 Propagation along the action potential
 Overview (definition) and main structures of the resting potential
Neurobiology and Synaptic Transmission

 Structure of synapses
 Transmission of nerve impulses
 Role of neurotransmitters
 Excitatory and inhibitory signals
Neuroactive Substances

 Agonists and antagonists
 Reuptake inhibition
 Enzyme inhibition
 Neurotoxins and their effects




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, Biology Abitur Lernzettel / Biology exam preparation -
Topics for Q2 - Ecology, plant structure, species interactions
and nutrient cycles

Ecological Rules and Adaptations

 Bergmann’s rule and body size adaptation
 Allen’s rule and extremity size
 Other ecological rules
Reproductive Strategies

 K-strategy and population stability
 r-strategy and rapid reproduction
Population Ecology

 Density-dependent factors
 Density-independent factors
 Exponential and logistic growth
Ecological Niche

 Definition of ecological niche
 Role of species in ecosystems
Plant Structure and Photosynthesis

 Leaf structure and function
 Chloroplast structure
 Photosynthesis process
Photosynthesis Adaptations

 C3 plants
 C4 plants
 CAM plants
 Photorespiration
Ecological Tolerance

 Tolerance ranges and optimum
 Eurytopic and stenotopic species
Plant Adaptations to Environment

 Hygrophytes and water-rich environments
 Xerophytes and dry environments

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,Thermoregulation in Animals

 Homeothermic organisms
 Poikilothermic organisms
Species Interactions

 Intraspecific relationships
 Interspecific relationships
 Predator-prey dynamics
 Lotka-Volterra rules
Ecosystem Development

 Primary succession
 Secondary succession
 Stages of ecosystem development
Nutrient Cycles

 Nitrogen cycle
 Role of bacteria and plants
Ecological Methods

 Qualitative analysis
 Quantitative measurements
 Sampling techniques




4

, Photosynthesis and Cellular respiration



1. Photosynthesis
Overview and definition

 Chloroplasts and light energy
 Key reactants and products (CO₂, H₂O, O₂, glucose, ATP, NADPH)
Light-Dependent Reactions
• Photosystem II (PSII), photolysis, electron transport chain
• Proton gradient, ATP synthase, Photosystem I (PSI), NADPH formation
Calvin Cycle (Light-Independent Reactions)
• Carbon fixation (RuBisCo and RuBP)
• Reduction phase (G3P production)
• Regeneration of RuBP
Limiting Factors of Photosynthesis


2. Cellular Respiration
Overview and definition

 Reactants and products (glucose, O₂ → CO₂, H₂O, ATP)
Glycolysis
• Location: Cytoplasm
• Glucose → pyruvate, net ATP and NADH yield
Link Reaction
• Pyruvate → Acetyl-CoA + CO₂ + NADH
Krebs Cycle
• Acetyl-CoA + oxaloacetate → citrate
• CO₂ release, ATP, NADH, FADH₂ production
Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative Phosphorylation




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, Biology Abitur Lernzettel / Biology exam preparation -
Topics for Q3 - Molecular biology, genetics, cell cycle,
mutations, DNA replication and protein synthesis

Cell Cycle and Cell Division

 Purpose of cell division
 The main stages involved
Gene Regulation

 Definition of gene regulation
 Operon model (promoter, operator, genes)
 Inducible and repressible operons
 Regulatory molecules (repressors, activators, inducers)
Genetic Engineering

 Definition and purpose
 Isolation of genes and vectors
 Restriction enzymes and ligation
 Transformation and selection
Applications of Genetic Engineering

 Medicine
 Agriculture and crop modification
 Industrial applications
Mutations

 Definition of mutations
 Causes of mutations (mutagens)
 Beneficial, neutral, and harmful mutations
DNA Replication

 Structure and enzymes involved
 Leading and lagging strand
 Initiation, elongation, termination
Protein Synthesis

 Transcription process
 Translation process
 Formation of polypeptides and proteins




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, Biology Abitur Lernzettel / Biology exam preparation –
Topics for Q4 - Evolution and Natural Selection, Summary on
Evolutionary Processes and Theories

Processes and Concepts of Evolution

 Definition of evolution
 Mutation and genetic change
 Adaptation and selective pressure
 Speciation and biodiversity
Theories of Evolution

 Fixism and creationism
 Catastrophism theory
 Lamarckism and inheritance of acquired traits
 Darwinism and natural selection
 Synthetic theory of evolution
Genetic Basis of Evolution

 Gene pool and allele frequencies
 Microevolution and macroevolution
 Importance of genetic diversity
Evolutionary Factors

 Genetic variation
 Mutations and their causes
 Recombination during meiosis
 Migration and gene flow
 Genetic drift
Genetic Drift and Population Effects

 Population bottleneck
 Founder effect
Natural Selection

 Definition and basic structure
 Role of variation in populations
 Struggle for existence and competition
 Inheritance of advantageous traits
 Adaptation over generations


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,Types of Natural Selection

 Stabilizing selection
 Directional selection
 Disruptive selection
Sexual Selection

 Intrasexual selection
 Intersexual selection
 Sexual dimorphism
Artificial Selection

 Human-controlled breeding
 Applications in agriculture and livestock
 Effects on trait inheritance




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, Topics for Q1



1. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

The nucleus is a structure within the cytoplasm, that is surrounded by a membrane and contains
most of the genetic information of the cell. Cells can be classified into two basic types based on the
presence or absence of a nucleus: prokaryotic cells, which lack a nucleus, and eukaryotic cells, which
contain a nucleus.



1. Prokaryotes:

Prokaryotes are organisms that lack a distinct nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles due
to the absence of internal membranes. The DNA of prokaryotic cells is located in the cytoplasm
rather than being enclosed within a nuclear membrane. Prokaryotes are typically found in single-
celled organisms, such as bacteria.

Prokaryotes have two types of DNA:

1. Single chromosome:

The single prokaryotic chromosome is coiled and concentrated in a region called the nucleoid.
Because prokaryotes have only one chromosome, they possess only one copy of each gene. Before
cell division, a copy of the chromosome is made through a process called binary fission.

2. Plasmids:

Prokaryotic bacteria may also contain circular, double-stranded DNA molecules called plasmids.
These structures are separate from the main chromosome of the cell and carry genes that provide
additional advantages, such as antibiotic resistance. Plasmids are not typically found in eukaryotic
cells.

Features of Plasmids:

-Naked DNA - not associated with histone proteins

-Not responsible for normal life processes - these are controlled by the nucleoid chromosome

-Commonly contain survival characteristics, e.g. antibiotic resistance

-Can be passed between prokaryotes

-Can be incorporated into the nucleoid chromosome



2. Eukaryotes:

Eukaryotes are organisms or cells that contain a nucleus and various other organelles not found in
prokaryotes. An organelle is a structure within the cytoplasm that performs a specific function in the
cell. For example, eukaryotic cells contain mitochondria, which provide energy, and vacuoles, which
store substances. Ribosomes, responsible for producing proteins, are present in both eukaryotic and
prokaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells are generally larger than prokaryotic cells and are typically found
in multicellular organisms.

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, 2. Transportation through the membrane

1. Passive Transport:

-Occurs via simple diffusion or facilitated diffusion (require no or very little energy in the form of
ATP)

Simple diffusion:

-Substances or molecules move down a concentration gradient -> from an area of high concentration
to an area of low concentration

-Carbon dioxide, Oxygen, Ethanol (hydrophobic in nature, therefore they can easily diffuse through)

Facilitated diffusion:

-Molecules or particles move from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration
with the help of transport molecules

-Polar molecules/charged ions cannot diffuse through the membrane since they are charged
molecules and would be repelled by the hydrophobic, non-polar part of the lipid bilayer

Transmembrane channels/proteins: They act as a transporter for polar, charged, and medium sized
molecules. They form a passage through the lipid bilayer, allowing these molecules to cross the
membrane, otherwise they would be repelled by the hydrophilic part of the phospholipid bilayer.



Types of passive transport:

Protein channels:

Channel proteins form open pores through which molecules of the appropriate size (e.g., Ion
channels, for example, allow the passage of inorganic ions such as Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Cl- across) can
freely cross the membrane. Channels proteins operate via passive diffusion, where molecules move
down a concentration gradient (from high to low concentration) with the help of transport proteins.
Both sides of the membrane can remain open at the same time.

Osmosis:

Water molecules cross the cell membrane through osmosis. Osmosis is the passive movement of
water from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration across a
semipermeable membrane. Accordingly, solutes cannot cross the phospholipid bilayer of the cell
membrane on their own. Hence they are often dissolved in water molecules, which helps facilitate
their movement across the semipermeable membrane. The majority of water transport occurs
through specialized protein channels called aquaporins, which increase the rate of water movement.
Osmosis is a passive process, which is why it needs no or only very little energy in the form of ATP.




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