PHIL ETHICS SOPHIA FINAL MILESTONE LATEST 2026/2027
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Section 1: Metaethics & Moral Philosophy Foundations (Questions
1–10)
Question 1
According to moral realism, moral statements are:
A. Expressions of individual or cultural preferences with no objective truth value
B. Systematically false because no moral facts exist in the world
C. Capable of being objectively true or false because moral facts exist independently of
human beliefs [CORRECT]
D. Commands issued by a divine authority that create moral obligations
Rationale: Moral realism holds that moral properties and facts exist independently of
human beliefs, making moral statements truth-apt and objectively evaluable. A
describes moral relativism/subjectivism, B describes J.L. Mackie's error theory (a form
of anti-realism), and D describes divine command theory (a metaethical position about
the ground of morality, not the status of moral statements). Realism vs. anti-realism
concerns whether moral facts exist; divine command theory could be realist if God's
commands constitute objective moral facts.
Question 2
,A philosopher claims: "When someone says 'Murder is wrong,' they are not stating a fact
but rather expressing their emotional disapproval—similar to saying 'Boo to murder!'"
This position is best classified as:
A. Moral naturalism
B. Emotivism [CORRECT]
C. Moral skepticism
D. Prescriptivism
Rationale: This is A.J. Ayer's emotivism (non-cognitivism), which holds that moral
statements express emotional attitudes rather than truth-apt propositions. A is incorrect
because naturalism holds that moral properties are reducible to natural properties (a
realist position). C is incorrect because moral skepticism doubts moral knowledge but
doesn't reduce moral statements to emotional expressions. D is incorrect because R.M.
Hare's prescriptivism holds that moral statements are universalizable commands, not
mere emotional outbursts.
Question 3
The Euthyphro dilemma poses a fundamental challenge to divine command theory by
asking:
A. Whether God exists or whether morality can exist without God
B. Whether something is good because God commands it, or whether God commands it
because it is good [CORRECT]
C. Whether divine commands apply to all humans or only to believers
D. Whether religious texts should be interpreted literally or metaphorically
Rationale: Plato's Euthyphro dilemma presents two horns: (1) If good because God
commands it, morality is arbitrary (God could command murder); (2) If God commands
it because it's good, morality is independent of God and divine command theory
collapses. Either horn undermines DCT as a complete account of moral obligation. A
,raises the independence question but not the specific logical structure, C concerns
scope of application, and D is about hermeneutics, not metaethics.
Question 4
Which of the following is a key distinction between moral naturalism and moral
non-naturalism?
A. Naturalism holds that moral facts are supernatural; non-naturalism holds they are
empirical
B. Naturalism holds that moral properties are reducible to natural properties;
non-naturalism holds they are sui generis and not reducible [CORRECT]
C. Naturalism is a form of anti-realism; non-naturalism is a form of realism
D. Naturalism requires divine revelation; non-naturalism relies on rational intuition alone
Rationale: Both naturalism and non-naturalism (e.g., G.E. Moore's intuitionism) are
realist positions. The key distinction is whether moral properties can be identified with
or reduced to natural/scientific properties. Moore's "open question argument" attacked
naturalism by showing that identifying "good" with any natural property always leaves a
meaningful question. A reverses the positions, C misclassifies naturalism as anti-realist,
and D incorrectly assigns religious epistemology to naturalism.
Question 5
A cultural anthropologist argues: "Moral truth is determined by the consensus of a given
society. What is morally right in one culture may be morally wrong in another, and
neither culture's moral code is objectively superior." This view is best described as:
A. Moral objectivism
B. Cultural moral relativism [CORRECT]
C. Error theory
D. Moral particularism
, Rationale: Cultural relativism holds that moral truth is socially constructed and varies
across cultures, with no objective standard for cross-cultural moral evaluation. A is the
direct opposite—objectivism holds universal moral truths. C (Mackie's error theory)
holds that all moral statements are false because no moral facts exist, whereas the
anthropologist affirms moral truths relative to cultures. D (Dancy) holds that moral
reasons are context-dependent but doesn't claim truth is culturally determined.
Question 6
According to J.L. Mackie's error theory:
A. Moral statements express non-cognitive emotional attitudes
B. Moral statements are truth-apt but systematically false because no objective moral
facts exist [CORRECT]
C. Moral statements are true relative to individual or cultural frameworks
D. Moral statements are self-evident truths known through rational intuition
Rationale: Mackie's error theory is cognitivist (moral statements are truth-apt
propositions) but anti-realist (they are all false because no objective moral properties
exist). He supported this with "argument from queerness" (moral properties would be
metaphysically strange) and "argument from relativity" (widespread moral
disagreement). A describes emotivism (non-cognitivism), C describes relativism, and D
describes Moorean intuitionism (non-naturalist realism).
Question 7
Natural law theory, as developed by Thomas Aquinas, maintains that:
A. Moral law is derived entirely from divine revelation in sacred texts
B. Moral law is accessible through rational reflection on human nature and basic human
goods [CORRECT]
C. Moral law is determined by the greatest happiness principle
| Complete Questions & Answers | Already Passed |
Philosophy Ethics Course | Pass Guaranteed - A+ Graded
Section 1: Metaethics & Moral Philosophy Foundations (Questions
1–10)
Question 1
According to moral realism, moral statements are:
A. Expressions of individual or cultural preferences with no objective truth value
B. Systematically false because no moral facts exist in the world
C. Capable of being objectively true or false because moral facts exist independently of
human beliefs [CORRECT]
D. Commands issued by a divine authority that create moral obligations
Rationale: Moral realism holds that moral properties and facts exist independently of
human beliefs, making moral statements truth-apt and objectively evaluable. A
describes moral relativism/subjectivism, B describes J.L. Mackie's error theory (a form
of anti-realism), and D describes divine command theory (a metaethical position about
the ground of morality, not the status of moral statements). Realism vs. anti-realism
concerns whether moral facts exist; divine command theory could be realist if God's
commands constitute objective moral facts.
Question 2
,A philosopher claims: "When someone says 'Murder is wrong,' they are not stating a fact
but rather expressing their emotional disapproval—similar to saying 'Boo to murder!'"
This position is best classified as:
A. Moral naturalism
B. Emotivism [CORRECT]
C. Moral skepticism
D. Prescriptivism
Rationale: This is A.J. Ayer's emotivism (non-cognitivism), which holds that moral
statements express emotional attitudes rather than truth-apt propositions. A is incorrect
because naturalism holds that moral properties are reducible to natural properties (a
realist position). C is incorrect because moral skepticism doubts moral knowledge but
doesn't reduce moral statements to emotional expressions. D is incorrect because R.M.
Hare's prescriptivism holds that moral statements are universalizable commands, not
mere emotional outbursts.
Question 3
The Euthyphro dilemma poses a fundamental challenge to divine command theory by
asking:
A. Whether God exists or whether morality can exist without God
B. Whether something is good because God commands it, or whether God commands it
because it is good [CORRECT]
C. Whether divine commands apply to all humans or only to believers
D. Whether religious texts should be interpreted literally or metaphorically
Rationale: Plato's Euthyphro dilemma presents two horns: (1) If good because God
commands it, morality is arbitrary (God could command murder); (2) If God commands
it because it's good, morality is independent of God and divine command theory
collapses. Either horn undermines DCT as a complete account of moral obligation. A
,raises the independence question but not the specific logical structure, C concerns
scope of application, and D is about hermeneutics, not metaethics.
Question 4
Which of the following is a key distinction between moral naturalism and moral
non-naturalism?
A. Naturalism holds that moral facts are supernatural; non-naturalism holds they are
empirical
B. Naturalism holds that moral properties are reducible to natural properties;
non-naturalism holds they are sui generis and not reducible [CORRECT]
C. Naturalism is a form of anti-realism; non-naturalism is a form of realism
D. Naturalism requires divine revelation; non-naturalism relies on rational intuition alone
Rationale: Both naturalism and non-naturalism (e.g., G.E. Moore's intuitionism) are
realist positions. The key distinction is whether moral properties can be identified with
or reduced to natural/scientific properties. Moore's "open question argument" attacked
naturalism by showing that identifying "good" with any natural property always leaves a
meaningful question. A reverses the positions, C misclassifies naturalism as anti-realist,
and D incorrectly assigns religious epistemology to naturalism.
Question 5
A cultural anthropologist argues: "Moral truth is determined by the consensus of a given
society. What is morally right in one culture may be morally wrong in another, and
neither culture's moral code is objectively superior." This view is best described as:
A. Moral objectivism
B. Cultural moral relativism [CORRECT]
C. Error theory
D. Moral particularism
, Rationale: Cultural relativism holds that moral truth is socially constructed and varies
across cultures, with no objective standard for cross-cultural moral evaluation. A is the
direct opposite—objectivism holds universal moral truths. C (Mackie's error theory)
holds that all moral statements are false because no moral facts exist, whereas the
anthropologist affirms moral truths relative to cultures. D (Dancy) holds that moral
reasons are context-dependent but doesn't claim truth is culturally determined.
Question 6
According to J.L. Mackie's error theory:
A. Moral statements express non-cognitive emotional attitudes
B. Moral statements are truth-apt but systematically false because no objective moral
facts exist [CORRECT]
C. Moral statements are true relative to individual or cultural frameworks
D. Moral statements are self-evident truths known through rational intuition
Rationale: Mackie's error theory is cognitivist (moral statements are truth-apt
propositions) but anti-realist (they are all false because no objective moral properties
exist). He supported this with "argument from queerness" (moral properties would be
metaphysically strange) and "argument from relativity" (widespread moral
disagreement). A describes emotivism (non-cognitivism), C describes relativism, and D
describes Moorean intuitionism (non-naturalist realism).
Question 7
Natural law theory, as developed by Thomas Aquinas, maintains that:
A. Moral law is derived entirely from divine revelation in sacred texts
B. Moral law is accessible through rational reflection on human nature and basic human
goods [CORRECT]
C. Moral law is determined by the greatest happiness principle
