WEEK 1a
1. Clarification of terms:
- None
2. Define the problem:
- Differnt areas if the brain and its affect, especially after injury. The problem involves
investigating the distinct brain regions and their corresponding functional consequences,
especially those resulting from neurological injury.
4. Analyse the problem (brainstorming):
5. Listing explanations of the problem (concrete):
6. Formulating learning objectives (around 5)
- Different regions of the brain and its connection to different functions
- How can the brain be observed (angles, plain, orientation).
- Based on the 3 case studies, which structures were damaged and which functions were lost? ->
what functional deficits were observable?
- Dissociation logic, definition and examples
Self Study:
- Different regions of the brain and its connection to different functions.
The human brain is a highly complex, hierarchical, and laterally specialized organ responsible for
all thought, behavior, and vital functions.
The largest part of the brain is the Cerebrum, which is divided into 2 distinct Cerebral
Hemispheres (the left and the right), connected by a massive bundle of nerve fibers called the
corpus callosum.
Callosal size could be related to the number and diameter of axons, the proportion of myelinated
axons, the thickness of myelin sheaths, and measures of nonneural structures such as the size of
blood vessels or the volume of extracellular space. Differences in corpus callosum size may also be
attributed to differences in brain size.
The cerebrum's surface is further divided into 4 main lobes, named for the skull bones that cover
them: Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, and Occipital.
There are three primary brain divisions: the prosencephalon (forebrain —> telencephalon,
diencephalon), mesencephalon (midbrain —> mesencephalon), and rhombencephalon (hindbrain
—> metencephalon, myelenchepahlon)
These three vesicles further differentiate into five subdivisions: myelencephalon, mesencephalon,
metencephalon, diencephalon and the telencephalon.
,BRAINSTEM
The Brainstem is conventionally understood to have three principal components: the
myelencephalon (medulla), the metencephalon (pons) the mesencephalon (midbrain).
• The Medulla (Myelencephalon): The most caudal portion of the brainstem, maintaining continuity
with the spinal cord. It is critical for the maintenance of fundamental vital functions such as
respiration, cardiac rhythm (heart rate), and arousal. The corticospinal motor axons, consolidated
in the pyramidal tract, undergo decussation(crossing) within the caudal medulla/pyramids.
• The Midbrain (Mesencephalon): superior to the pons, it is anatomically divided into the tectum
("roof," the dorsal portion) and the tegmentum ("covering," the ventral portion). The tectum has
two pairs of sensory bumps: the superior colliculi are involved in visual processing (bottom-up),
while the inferior colliculi function in auditory processing.
The ventral portion contains critical motor nuclei, including the Substantia Nigra and the Red
Nucleus, along with the Cerebral Peduncles, which carry major descending motor pathways.
• The Pons (Metencephalon): Situated anterior to the medulla, the pons is the principal structural
connection between the rest of the brain and the cerebellum. It facilitates motor control and is
responsible for the generation of Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep.
• The Cerebellum: Attached to the pons, it is crucial for motor coordination, balance, and posture,
and is also implicated in cognitive functions.
,DIENCEPHALON
The Diencephalon is located between the forebrain and the midbrain.
• The Thalamus: Acts as a relay and processing hub and is often described as a "switchboard" for
sensory and motor signals. All sensory modalities (except olfaction) make synaptic relays here
thanks to several nuclei. The thalamus is divided into 2 parts one in the right hemisphere and one
in the left-that straddle the third ventricle. In most people, the two parts are connected by a bridge
of gray matter called the massa intermedia.
• The Hypothalamus: Serves as the primary functional link between the nervous system and the
endocrine system via control of the pituitary gland. It regulates vital physiological processes
necessary for maintaining homeostasis (e.g., basal temperature, metabolic rate, circadian cycles,
thirst, and hunger), sends signals that drive behavior to alleviate such feelings as thirst, hunger,
and fatigue.
, TELECEPHALON AND SUBCORTICAL STRUCTURES
The telencephalon develops into the cerebrum, which encompasses the cerebral cortex, the basal
ganglia, the olfactory bulb, and most structures of the limbic system.
Deep beneath the cortical surface lie several major gray matter structures that are extensively
interconnected with each other and with distant brain regions.
Limbic System Anatomy
Although the limbic system is functionally distributed, many of its major structures arise from the
telencephalon. These components lie deep to the cortex, forming an interconnected circuitry that
regulates emotion, memory, olfaction, and motivational states. Together they include both cortical
and subcortical elements.
- The hippocampal formation—composed of the dentate gyrus, CA fields, and subiculum—is
essential for episodic memory formation and spatial navigation. Input arrives via the entorhinal
cortex, the major interface between association cortices and the hippocampus. The information
flow, often called the trisynaptic pathway, proceeds from entorhinal cortex to dentate gyrus, then
to CA3, CA1, and finally back to widespread cortical regions through the subiculum and fornix.
- The amygdala, a collection of nuclei in the medial temporal lobe, assigns emotional value to
sensory stimuli, especially fear, threat, and reward. It receives highly processed visual, auditory,
and somatosensory information from the temporal and parietal association cortices and
influences autonomic and hormonal responses via the hypothalamus.
- The nucleus accumbens, part of the ventral striatum, integrates information from prefrontal
cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus to produce motivated action, reinforcement learning, and
reward-seeking. Dopaminergic projections from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) modulate its
activity, forming the core of the mesolimbic reward pathway.
- The limbic cortex includes cortical areas such as the cingulate gyrus, orbitofrontal cortex,
parahippocampal cortex, and entorhinal cortex. These regions provide the interface where
cognitive, emotional, and visceral information converge, enabling adaptive behavioral responses.
- The cingulate cortex in particular supports conflict monitoring, emotional appraisal, and action
selection.
1. Clarification of terms:
- None
2. Define the problem:
- Differnt areas if the brain and its affect, especially after injury. The problem involves
investigating the distinct brain regions and their corresponding functional consequences,
especially those resulting from neurological injury.
4. Analyse the problem (brainstorming):
5. Listing explanations of the problem (concrete):
6. Formulating learning objectives (around 5)
- Different regions of the brain and its connection to different functions
- How can the brain be observed (angles, plain, orientation).
- Based on the 3 case studies, which structures were damaged and which functions were lost? ->
what functional deficits were observable?
- Dissociation logic, definition and examples
Self Study:
- Different regions of the brain and its connection to different functions.
The human brain is a highly complex, hierarchical, and laterally specialized organ responsible for
all thought, behavior, and vital functions.
The largest part of the brain is the Cerebrum, which is divided into 2 distinct Cerebral
Hemispheres (the left and the right), connected by a massive bundle of nerve fibers called the
corpus callosum.
Callosal size could be related to the number and diameter of axons, the proportion of myelinated
axons, the thickness of myelin sheaths, and measures of nonneural structures such as the size of
blood vessels or the volume of extracellular space. Differences in corpus callosum size may also be
attributed to differences in brain size.
The cerebrum's surface is further divided into 4 main lobes, named for the skull bones that cover
them: Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, and Occipital.
There are three primary brain divisions: the prosencephalon (forebrain —> telencephalon,
diencephalon), mesencephalon (midbrain —> mesencephalon), and rhombencephalon (hindbrain
—> metencephalon, myelenchepahlon)
These three vesicles further differentiate into five subdivisions: myelencephalon, mesencephalon,
metencephalon, diencephalon and the telencephalon.
,BRAINSTEM
The Brainstem is conventionally understood to have three principal components: the
myelencephalon (medulla), the metencephalon (pons) the mesencephalon (midbrain).
• The Medulla (Myelencephalon): The most caudal portion of the brainstem, maintaining continuity
with the spinal cord. It is critical for the maintenance of fundamental vital functions such as
respiration, cardiac rhythm (heart rate), and arousal. The corticospinal motor axons, consolidated
in the pyramidal tract, undergo decussation(crossing) within the caudal medulla/pyramids.
• The Midbrain (Mesencephalon): superior to the pons, it is anatomically divided into the tectum
("roof," the dorsal portion) and the tegmentum ("covering," the ventral portion). The tectum has
two pairs of sensory bumps: the superior colliculi are involved in visual processing (bottom-up),
while the inferior colliculi function in auditory processing.
The ventral portion contains critical motor nuclei, including the Substantia Nigra and the Red
Nucleus, along with the Cerebral Peduncles, which carry major descending motor pathways.
• The Pons (Metencephalon): Situated anterior to the medulla, the pons is the principal structural
connection between the rest of the brain and the cerebellum. It facilitates motor control and is
responsible for the generation of Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep.
• The Cerebellum: Attached to the pons, it is crucial for motor coordination, balance, and posture,
and is also implicated in cognitive functions.
,DIENCEPHALON
The Diencephalon is located between the forebrain and the midbrain.
• The Thalamus: Acts as a relay and processing hub and is often described as a "switchboard" for
sensory and motor signals. All sensory modalities (except olfaction) make synaptic relays here
thanks to several nuclei. The thalamus is divided into 2 parts one in the right hemisphere and one
in the left-that straddle the third ventricle. In most people, the two parts are connected by a bridge
of gray matter called the massa intermedia.
• The Hypothalamus: Serves as the primary functional link between the nervous system and the
endocrine system via control of the pituitary gland. It regulates vital physiological processes
necessary for maintaining homeostasis (e.g., basal temperature, metabolic rate, circadian cycles,
thirst, and hunger), sends signals that drive behavior to alleviate such feelings as thirst, hunger,
and fatigue.
, TELECEPHALON AND SUBCORTICAL STRUCTURES
The telencephalon develops into the cerebrum, which encompasses the cerebral cortex, the basal
ganglia, the olfactory bulb, and most structures of the limbic system.
Deep beneath the cortical surface lie several major gray matter structures that are extensively
interconnected with each other and with distant brain regions.
Limbic System Anatomy
Although the limbic system is functionally distributed, many of its major structures arise from the
telencephalon. These components lie deep to the cortex, forming an interconnected circuitry that
regulates emotion, memory, olfaction, and motivational states. Together they include both cortical
and subcortical elements.
- The hippocampal formation—composed of the dentate gyrus, CA fields, and subiculum—is
essential for episodic memory formation and spatial navigation. Input arrives via the entorhinal
cortex, the major interface between association cortices and the hippocampus. The information
flow, often called the trisynaptic pathway, proceeds from entorhinal cortex to dentate gyrus, then
to CA3, CA1, and finally back to widespread cortical regions through the subiculum and fornix.
- The amygdala, a collection of nuclei in the medial temporal lobe, assigns emotional value to
sensory stimuli, especially fear, threat, and reward. It receives highly processed visual, auditory,
and somatosensory information from the temporal and parietal association cortices and
influences autonomic and hormonal responses via the hypothalamus.
- The nucleus accumbens, part of the ventral striatum, integrates information from prefrontal
cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus to produce motivated action, reinforcement learning, and
reward-seeking. Dopaminergic projections from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) modulate its
activity, forming the core of the mesolimbic reward pathway.
- The limbic cortex includes cortical areas such as the cingulate gyrus, orbitofrontal cortex,
parahippocampal cortex, and entorhinal cortex. These regions provide the interface where
cognitive, emotional, and visceral information converge, enabling adaptive behavioral responses.
- The cingulate cortex in particular supports conflict monitoring, emotional appraisal, and action
selection.
