lOMoARcPSD|66458793
11.
The Teaching cf Learning
Strategies
Claire E. Weinstein
University of Texas, Austin
Richard E. Mayer
University of California, Santa Barbara
Introduction teaehing ineludes teaching students how to leam, how to
In recent years inereasing attention has been foeused on the role remember, how to think, and how to motivate themselves.
of the learner as an aetive participant in the teaching-Ieaming Norman (1980) summarizes this argument as folIows:
aet. In particular, this view suggests that the effects of teaching It is strange that we expect students to learn yet seldom teach them
depend partlyon what the leamer knows, such as the learner's about learning. We expect students to solve prOblems yet seldom
prior knowledge, and what the learner thinks about during teach them about problem solving. And, similarly, we sometimes
learning, such as the learner's aetive cognitive processing require students to remember a considerable body of material yet
(Anderson, Spiro, & Montague, 1977; Cook & Mayer, seldom teach them the art of memory. It is time we made up for this
1983; Dansereau, 1985; Jones, Amiran, & Katims, 1985; Mayer, lack, time that we developed the applied disciplines of leaming and
1984; Ryan, 1981; Weinstein, 1978; Weinstein & Underwood, problem solving and memory. We need to develop the general
1985; Wittrock, 1974, 1978). principles of how to leam, how to remember, how to solve prob-
lems, and then to de~elop applied courses, and then to establish the
The present paper investigates teehniques that a leamer ean place of these methods in an academic curriculum. (p. 97)
be taught to use during leaming. These techniques, referred to
as leaming strategies, ean be defined as behaviors and thoughts This argument beeomes even more eompelling as the lifelong
that a learner engages in during leaming and that are intended leaming eoncept continues to be defined an~ expanded in
to influence the learner's eneoding process. Thus, the goal of soeietal self-descriptions and educational forecas&g. Helping
any partieular learning strategy may be to affeet the leamer's students to develop effective ways to. handle the barrage of
motivational or affective state, or the way in whieh the learner information coming from the environment, as weIl as their own
seleets, acquires, organizes, or integrates new knowledge. For thinking processes, is a major goal of our educational system
example, in preparing for a learning situation, a leamer may use that will only increase in importance in the future.
positive self-talk to reduce feelings of anxiety; in learning This change in approach has important implications for
paired-assoeiates, a learner may form a mental image to help teacher training and practice. Teachers enter the classroom
associate the objects represented by the members of each pair; with two distinetly different kinds of goals: (1) Goals concerning
in learning from an expository passage a leamer may generate the products oj learning, which foeus on what students should
summaries for each section; in learning about a scientific know or be able to do as a result ofleaming, that is, on teaching
coneept, a leamer may take notes about the material. Bach of what to learn. For example, when teaching addition, one goal of
these activities - eoaehing, imaging, summarizing, and note- instruetion may be that the learner acquire the number facts up
taking - are examples of learning strategies. to 100. (2) Goals concerning the processes ollearning, which
Why should there be a ehapter on "leaming strategies" in a focus on techniques and strategies students can use to accom-
handbook of research on teaching? Tbe rationale is that good plish learning, that is, on teaching how to leam. For example,
The authors thank reviewers Judith Segal (National Institute of Education) and Barbara McCombs (University of Denver).
315
, lOMoARcPSD|66458793
CLAIRE E. WEINSTEIN AND RICHARD E. MAYER
316
when teaching addition, one goal of instruction may be that the attention on the first kind of activity, the cognitive approach
learner acquire techniques for relating new problems to existing requires also focusing on the second kind of activity.
knowledge, such as identifying that 7 + 5 = _ is the same as A framework for describing the teaching-learning process is
6 + 6 = _. Successful teaching requires sensitivity to both presented in Table 11.1. The elements in this process inc1ude the
types of instructional goals and skill in teaching both types of following:
instructional objectives. • Teacher characteristics - including the teacher's existing
knowledge concerning the subject matter and how to teach,
that may be required for the teaching strategy selected.
• Teaching strategies-including the teacher's performance
Conceptual Framework during teaching such as what is presented, when it is
An interest in learning strategies is the natural outgrowth of a presented, and how it is presented.
change in orientation from behaviorist theories to cognitive • Learner characteristics - including the learner's existing
theories of learning. The behaviorist (or S-R) approach to knowledge concerning facts, procedures, and strategies, that
learning-as developed from the work ofHull and Spence and may be required for the learning strategy selected.
Skinner-focuses on how presentation of material influences • Learning strategies-including behaviors that the learner
behavior. As Farnham-Diggory (1977) points out, this S-R engages in during learning that are intended to influence
approach is based on the idea that "a stimulus goes in, a affective and cognitive processing during encoding.
response comes out, and what happens in bctween is summar- • Encoding process-including internal cognitive processes
ized by a hyphen" (p. 128). during learning such as how the learner selects, organizes,
In contrast, the cognitive approach to learning seeks to and integrates new information.
understand how incoming information is processed and struc- • Learning outcome-including the newly acquired knowl-
tured in memory. Farnham-Diggory (1977) notes that "with edge that depends on both teaching and learning strategies.
the emergence of cognitive psychology in the 1960's ... now, • Performance- including behavior on tests of retention and
instead of a hyphen, we have mental structures and processes" transfer.
(p.128).
The cognitive approach has changed our conception of the As can be seen, instruction in learning strategies (i.e.• training in
teaching-learning process in several ways. Instead of viewing , how to learn) can alfect learner characteristics by mnking
learners as passively recording the stimuli that the teacher specific strategies and methods available to the learner. The use
presents, learning is viewed as an active process that occurs of particular learning strategies during learning can affect the
within the learner and which can be influenced by the learner. encoding process, which in turn affects the learning outcome
Instead of viewing thc outcome oflearning as depending mainly and performance.
on what the teacher presents, the outcome of learning is Table 11.2 !ists some of the major categories of learning
supposed to depend jointlyon what information is presented strategies. Each category includes methods designed to in-
and on how the lcarner processes that information. Hence, fluence certain aspects of the encoding process to facilitate one
thcre are two different kinds of activities that influence the or more types of learning outcome and performance. The
encoding process: (1) teaching strategies, such as the teacher categories listed in the table are:
prescnting certain material at a certain time in a certain way; • Rehearsal strategies for basic learning tasks -- such as re-
and (2) learning strategies, such as the leamer actively organiz- peating the names of items in an ordered list. Common
ing or elaborating or predicting about the presented material. school tasks in this category include remembering the order
While the traditional S-R approach has focused educators' of the planets from the sun and the order in whi$ Shake-
speare introduces the characters in the play Harn/et.
Table H.1. Framework for Analyzing the • Rehearsal strategies fol' complex learning tasks - such as
Teachlng-Learning Process copying, underlining or shadowing the material presented in
class. Common school tasks in this category include under-
Teacher Characterlstlcs Learner Characteristlcs lining the main events in a story or copying portions of a
What the teacher knows What the learner knows lesson about the causes of World War I.
Teaching Strategy Learn Ing Strategy
What the teacher does durlng
Table 11.2. Eight Categories
What the learner does durlng
teaching learnlng of Learning Strategles
Encodlng Process 1. Basic Rehearsal Strategies
How Information isprocessed 2. Complex Rehearsal Strategies
3. Basic Elaboration Strategies
Learnlng Outcome 4. Complex Elaboration Strategies
What is learned 5. Basic Organlzational Strategles
6. Complex Organlzational Strategies
Performance 7. Comprehension Monitoring Strategies
How learnlng is evaluated 8. Affective and Motivational Strategles
11.
The Teaching cf Learning
Strategies
Claire E. Weinstein
University of Texas, Austin
Richard E. Mayer
University of California, Santa Barbara
Introduction teaehing ineludes teaching students how to leam, how to
In recent years inereasing attention has been foeused on the role remember, how to think, and how to motivate themselves.
of the learner as an aetive participant in the teaching-Ieaming Norman (1980) summarizes this argument as folIows:
aet. In particular, this view suggests that the effects of teaching It is strange that we expect students to learn yet seldom teach them
depend partlyon what the leamer knows, such as the learner's about learning. We expect students to solve prOblems yet seldom
prior knowledge, and what the learner thinks about during teach them about problem solving. And, similarly, we sometimes
learning, such as the learner's aetive cognitive processing require students to remember a considerable body of material yet
(Anderson, Spiro, & Montague, 1977; Cook & Mayer, seldom teach them the art of memory. It is time we made up for this
1983; Dansereau, 1985; Jones, Amiran, & Katims, 1985; Mayer, lack, time that we developed the applied disciplines of leaming and
1984; Ryan, 1981; Weinstein, 1978; Weinstein & Underwood, problem solving and memory. We need to develop the general
1985; Wittrock, 1974, 1978). principles of how to leam, how to remember, how to solve prob-
lems, and then to de~elop applied courses, and then to establish the
The present paper investigates teehniques that a leamer ean place of these methods in an academic curriculum. (p. 97)
be taught to use during leaming. These techniques, referred to
as leaming strategies, ean be defined as behaviors and thoughts This argument beeomes even more eompelling as the lifelong
that a learner engages in during leaming and that are intended leaming eoncept continues to be defined an~ expanded in
to influence the learner's eneoding process. Thus, the goal of soeietal self-descriptions and educational forecas&g. Helping
any partieular learning strategy may be to affeet the leamer's students to develop effective ways to. handle the barrage of
motivational or affective state, or the way in whieh the learner information coming from the environment, as weIl as their own
seleets, acquires, organizes, or integrates new knowledge. For thinking processes, is a major goal of our educational system
example, in preparing for a learning situation, a leamer may use that will only increase in importance in the future.
positive self-talk to reduce feelings of anxiety; in learning This change in approach has important implications for
paired-assoeiates, a learner may form a mental image to help teacher training and practice. Teachers enter the classroom
associate the objects represented by the members of each pair; with two distinetly different kinds of goals: (1) Goals concerning
in learning from an expository passage a leamer may generate the products oj learning, which foeus on what students should
summaries for each section; in learning about a scientific know or be able to do as a result ofleaming, that is, on teaching
coneept, a leamer may take notes about the material. Bach of what to learn. For example, when teaching addition, one goal of
these activities - eoaehing, imaging, summarizing, and note- instruetion may be that the learner acquire the number facts up
taking - are examples of learning strategies. to 100. (2) Goals concerning the processes ollearning, which
Why should there be a ehapter on "leaming strategies" in a focus on techniques and strategies students can use to accom-
handbook of research on teaching? Tbe rationale is that good plish learning, that is, on teaching how to leam. For example,
The authors thank reviewers Judith Segal (National Institute of Education) and Barbara McCombs (University of Denver).
315
, lOMoARcPSD|66458793
CLAIRE E. WEINSTEIN AND RICHARD E. MAYER
316
when teaching addition, one goal of instruction may be that the attention on the first kind of activity, the cognitive approach
learner acquire techniques for relating new problems to existing requires also focusing on the second kind of activity.
knowledge, such as identifying that 7 + 5 = _ is the same as A framework for describing the teaching-learning process is
6 + 6 = _. Successful teaching requires sensitivity to both presented in Table 11.1. The elements in this process inc1ude the
types of instructional goals and skill in teaching both types of following:
instructional objectives. • Teacher characteristics - including the teacher's existing
knowledge concerning the subject matter and how to teach,
that may be required for the teaching strategy selected.
• Teaching strategies-including the teacher's performance
Conceptual Framework during teaching such as what is presented, when it is
An interest in learning strategies is the natural outgrowth of a presented, and how it is presented.
change in orientation from behaviorist theories to cognitive • Learner characteristics - including the learner's existing
theories of learning. The behaviorist (or S-R) approach to knowledge concerning facts, procedures, and strategies, that
learning-as developed from the work ofHull and Spence and may be required for the learning strategy selected.
Skinner-focuses on how presentation of material influences • Learning strategies-including behaviors that the learner
behavior. As Farnham-Diggory (1977) points out, this S-R engages in during learning that are intended to influence
approach is based on the idea that "a stimulus goes in, a affective and cognitive processing during encoding.
response comes out, and what happens in bctween is summar- • Encoding process-including internal cognitive processes
ized by a hyphen" (p. 128). during learning such as how the learner selects, organizes,
In contrast, the cognitive approach to learning seeks to and integrates new information.
understand how incoming information is processed and struc- • Learning outcome-including the newly acquired knowl-
tured in memory. Farnham-Diggory (1977) notes that "with edge that depends on both teaching and learning strategies.
the emergence of cognitive psychology in the 1960's ... now, • Performance- including behavior on tests of retention and
instead of a hyphen, we have mental structures and processes" transfer.
(p.128).
The cognitive approach has changed our conception of the As can be seen, instruction in learning strategies (i.e.• training in
teaching-learning process in several ways. Instead of viewing , how to learn) can alfect learner characteristics by mnking
learners as passively recording the stimuli that the teacher specific strategies and methods available to the learner. The use
presents, learning is viewed as an active process that occurs of particular learning strategies during learning can affect the
within the learner and which can be influenced by the learner. encoding process, which in turn affects the learning outcome
Instead of viewing thc outcome oflearning as depending mainly and performance.
on what the teacher presents, the outcome of learning is Table 11.2 !ists some of the major categories of learning
supposed to depend jointlyon what information is presented strategies. Each category includes methods designed to in-
and on how the lcarner processes that information. Hence, fluence certain aspects of the encoding process to facilitate one
thcre are two different kinds of activities that influence the or more types of learning outcome and performance. The
encoding process: (1) teaching strategies, such as the teacher categories listed in the table are:
prescnting certain material at a certain time in a certain way; • Rehearsal strategies for basic learning tasks -- such as re-
and (2) learning strategies, such as the leamer actively organiz- peating the names of items in an ordered list. Common
ing or elaborating or predicting about the presented material. school tasks in this category include remembering the order
While the traditional S-R approach has focused educators' of the planets from the sun and the order in whi$ Shake-
speare introduces the characters in the play Harn/et.
Table H.1. Framework for Analyzing the • Rehearsal strategies fol' complex learning tasks - such as
Teachlng-Learning Process copying, underlining or shadowing the material presented in
class. Common school tasks in this category include under-
Teacher Characterlstlcs Learner Characteristlcs lining the main events in a story or copying portions of a
What the teacher knows What the learner knows lesson about the causes of World War I.
Teaching Strategy Learn Ing Strategy
What the teacher does durlng
Table 11.2. Eight Categories
What the learner does durlng
teaching learnlng of Learning Strategles
Encodlng Process 1. Basic Rehearsal Strategies
How Information isprocessed 2. Complex Rehearsal Strategies
3. Basic Elaboration Strategies
Learnlng Outcome 4. Complex Elaboration Strategies
What is learned 5. Basic Organlzational Strategles
6. Complex Organlzational Strategies
Performance 7. Comprehension Monitoring Strategies
How learnlng is evaluated 8. Affective and Motivational Strategles
