Journal of Education and Training Studies
Vol. 4, No. 4; April 2016
ISSN 2324-805X E-ISSN 2324-8068
Published by Redfame Publishing
URL: http://jets.redfame.com
Retention and Satisfaction of Novice Teachers: Lessons from a School
Reform Model
Elizabeth J. Glennie1, Marcinda Mason1, Julie A. Edmunds2
1
RTI International, 3040 East Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709-2194, USA, Phone: 919-541-6434
2
SERVE Center at University of North Carolina at Greensboro, 2634 Durham-Chapel Hill Boulevard, Suite 208,
Durham, NC, 27707, USA, Phone: 336-574-8727
Correspondence: Elizabeth J. Glennie, RTI International, 3040 East Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC,
27709-2194, USA. Phone: 919-541-6434.
Received: December 31, 2015 Accepted: January 21, 2016 Online Published: March 14, 2016
doi:10.11114/jets.v4i4.1458 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11114/jets.v4i4.1458
Abstract
In many countries, novice teachers, or those with fewer than four years of experience, have a higher turnover rate than
do more experienced teachers. Using teacher employment data, we examine whether schools in an American
whole-school reform model are better able to retain novice teachers. Using survey data, we investigate whether novice
teachers in a particular school reform model are more satisfied with school leadership than their peers in traditional high
schools. In this reform model, early college high schools, high schools are located on college campuses and students
have the opportunity to earn an associate’s degree or two years of credit in the state university system. This model
emphasizes a shared mission and shared leadership. We find that early colleges had a higher turnover rate than their
neighbor schools, and a higher percentage of early college teachers were novices. However, these novice teachers were
not more likely to leave than novice teachers in traditional schools were. Early college novice teachers received more
personalized support and were more satisfied with school leadership than their peers in traditional high schools. Under
certain conditions, schools can have higher retention rates for novice teachers.
Keywords: novice teachers, teacher job satisfaction, teacher turnover, school reform
1. Introduction
In the United States, policymakers and practitioners have begun to develop a set of innovative high school reform
models in response to concerns about low high school graduation rates and economic competitiveness (Cullen, Levitt,
Robertson & Sadoff, 2013; Edmunds & McColskey, 2007; Hanushek, Peterson & Woessman, 2013). In addition to
changing the high school experience for students, these reform models often aim to create a different environment for
teachers, with a shared mission and leadership. Innovative school settings often have higher percentages of novice
teachers, and across all schools, novice teachers are more likely to leave their jobs, particularly if they do not have peer
assistance or administrative support (Curtis, 2012; Barnes, Crowe, & Shaeffer, 2007). It is particularly important to pay
attention to their experiences. As a case study for examining teacher characteristics and teacher perceptions of working
conditions in an innovative high school setting, this article uses the early college high school model (hereafter referred
to as early colleges), in which small schools blend the high school and college experiences. We focus specifically on the
experiences of novice teachers.
Using individual teacher licensure/salary data, we examine whether the schools in this reform model are better able to
retain qualified teachers than traditional schools in their districts, and whether novice teachers are more likely to stay in
these reform model schools. Then, using teacher survey data, we examine whether the new early college teachers are
more satisfied with their working conditions than their peers. Questions about working conditions focus on satisfaction
with instructional support, leaders’ responsiveness to various teacher concerns, and teachers’ leadership roles. The
lessons learned from examining teachers in this specific school reform model may help to inform strategies for retaining
teachers in other types of schools.
1.1 Retaining Qualified Teachers
Schools face challenges in retaining qualified teachers, some of which have to do with a school’s culture Allensworth,
244
, Journal of Education and Training Studies Vol. 4, No. 4; April 2016
Ponisciak, & Mazzeo, 2009; Boyd, et al., 2011; Curtis, 2012; Jo, 2014; Johnson, Kraft, & Papay, 2012). A school’s
location, student body poverty level, and levels of student achievement affect the likelihood that it will retain qualified
teachers (Allen, 2005; American Association of State Colleges and Universities, 2005; Barnes, Crowe & Schaeffer,
2007; Newton, Rivero, Fuller, & Dauter, 2011). Schools cannot control these factors, but they can control other
elements that influence teacher satisfaction and turnover. Many teachers leave their jobs because of dissatisfaction with
aspects of the school’s culture, lack of administrative support, limited influence on school policies, large teaching loads,
and limited opportunities for professional development (Allensworth, Ponisciak, & Mazzeo, 2009; Boyd, et al., 2011;
Curtis, 2012). The relational aspects of teachers’ working conditions have a strong influence on their job satisfaction
and intention to remain at the school (Jo, 2014; Johnson, Kraft, & Papay, 2012). Teachers tend to report greater job
satisfaction and the intention to remain in their schools when they have positive feelings about the school’s leadership
and their relationships with colleagues. Turnover rates are lower in schools where teachers report better principal
leadership, more autonomy within the classroom, and richer opportunities for professional development (Ingersoll &
May, 2012). Where teachers report higher levels of participation in school decision-making, turnover is also lower (Liu,
2007). These relationships hold net of the schools’ student demographic characteristics. Even in high-poverty schools,
which often face challenges attracting and retaining qualified teachers, teachers leave due to elements of the working
conditions pertaining to school leadership and collegial relationships (Simon & Johnson, 2015). In New York City,
teachers who hold less positive views of their administrators are more likely to transfer or leave teaching entirely than
those who hold more positive views, net of structural factors such as facilities and safety (Boyd et al., 2011). In North
Carolina, the higher the perceived quality of school leadership, the less likely teachers are to leave or plan to leave the
school (Ladd, 2011).
Some teachers leave their jobs to retire or to leave teaching altogether, but many look for better teaching jobs (Ingersoll
& May, 2012; Gray & Taie, 2015; Keigher, 2010). Even when teachers move to a new school, the schools that lose
teachers face disruptions and have to expend resources to hire and train new teachers. In addition, the departure of
teachers may temporarily add to the workload of teachers who remain. Teacher turnover can harm students as well. The
cost of recruiting new teachers can be substantial, and turnover undermines at-risk schools (Barnes, Crowe & Schaefer,
2007). A study of New York schools found that students in schools experiencing high rates of teacher turnover have
lower achievement than those in schools with low teacher turnover rates, net of other student, classroom, and school
characteristics (Ronfeldt, Loeb, & Wyckoff, 2013).
High turnover rates can disrupt the development of organizational capital—a social resource that facilitates cooperation
and communication within an organization, such as a school. Organizational capital has structural, relational, and
cognitive dimensions. The structural dimension refers to the structure of the ties between actors, whereas the relational
dimension refers to the personal relationships, a shared sense of obligation, and trust. The cognitive dimension refers to
a shared understanding of systems (Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998). High instability through teacher turnover does not
affect the structure of the ties between actors, but it harms the relational and cognitive aspects of organizational capital.
When teachers have to be replaced, it takes time for new hires to develop trusting relationships and a shared
understanding of systemic requirements and strategies for meeting organizational goals.
Low organizational functioning and turnover influence each other. Teachers are more likely to leave schools that have
low organizational function, and in schools with high turnover and low stability, leaders have difficulty enforcing
organizational norms and establishing organizational functioning (Holme & Rangel, 2012). This lack of stability may
make it more difficult to implement innovative school reforms because it takes time for teachers to understand the
mission of a new program and the instructional practices best suited for it (Berends, Bodilly, & Kirby, 2002; Desimione,
2002).
Many novice teachers leave the profession before their skills are honed through experience. In the United States, within
5 years of beginning teaching, about 20 percent of new teachers left teaching altogether, and another 10 percent
changed schools. Providing support to novice teachers can influence their decisions to stay in their jobs (Ingersoll,
2012). A higher percentage of new teachers who were assigned a mentor remained in teaching 5 years later compared to
new teachers who did not have a mentor in the same content area (Gray & Taie, 2015). Teachers who received
supports—including having a mentor in the same field, having common planning time, and having scheduled
collaboration with other teachers—were less likely to depart after their first year (Ingersoll, 2012; Harris, 2015). Novice
teachers who shared organizational preferences for practices with their colleagues and who are committed to the goals
of the school were more likely to say they intend to remain teaching in their school (Pogodzinski, Youngs, & Frank,
2013).
245
Vol. 4, No. 4; April 2016
ISSN 2324-805X E-ISSN 2324-8068
Published by Redfame Publishing
URL: http://jets.redfame.com
Retention and Satisfaction of Novice Teachers: Lessons from a School
Reform Model
Elizabeth J. Glennie1, Marcinda Mason1, Julie A. Edmunds2
1
RTI International, 3040 East Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709-2194, USA, Phone: 919-541-6434
2
SERVE Center at University of North Carolina at Greensboro, 2634 Durham-Chapel Hill Boulevard, Suite 208,
Durham, NC, 27707, USA, Phone: 336-574-8727
Correspondence: Elizabeth J. Glennie, RTI International, 3040 East Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC,
27709-2194, USA. Phone: 919-541-6434.
Received: December 31, 2015 Accepted: January 21, 2016 Online Published: March 14, 2016
doi:10.11114/jets.v4i4.1458 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11114/jets.v4i4.1458
Abstract
In many countries, novice teachers, or those with fewer than four years of experience, have a higher turnover rate than
do more experienced teachers. Using teacher employment data, we examine whether schools in an American
whole-school reform model are better able to retain novice teachers. Using survey data, we investigate whether novice
teachers in a particular school reform model are more satisfied with school leadership than their peers in traditional high
schools. In this reform model, early college high schools, high schools are located on college campuses and students
have the opportunity to earn an associate’s degree or two years of credit in the state university system. This model
emphasizes a shared mission and shared leadership. We find that early colleges had a higher turnover rate than their
neighbor schools, and a higher percentage of early college teachers were novices. However, these novice teachers were
not more likely to leave than novice teachers in traditional schools were. Early college novice teachers received more
personalized support and were more satisfied with school leadership than their peers in traditional high schools. Under
certain conditions, schools can have higher retention rates for novice teachers.
Keywords: novice teachers, teacher job satisfaction, teacher turnover, school reform
1. Introduction
In the United States, policymakers and practitioners have begun to develop a set of innovative high school reform
models in response to concerns about low high school graduation rates and economic competitiveness (Cullen, Levitt,
Robertson & Sadoff, 2013; Edmunds & McColskey, 2007; Hanushek, Peterson & Woessman, 2013). In addition to
changing the high school experience for students, these reform models often aim to create a different environment for
teachers, with a shared mission and leadership. Innovative school settings often have higher percentages of novice
teachers, and across all schools, novice teachers are more likely to leave their jobs, particularly if they do not have peer
assistance or administrative support (Curtis, 2012; Barnes, Crowe, & Shaeffer, 2007). It is particularly important to pay
attention to their experiences. As a case study for examining teacher characteristics and teacher perceptions of working
conditions in an innovative high school setting, this article uses the early college high school model (hereafter referred
to as early colleges), in which small schools blend the high school and college experiences. We focus specifically on the
experiences of novice teachers.
Using individual teacher licensure/salary data, we examine whether the schools in this reform model are better able to
retain qualified teachers than traditional schools in their districts, and whether novice teachers are more likely to stay in
these reform model schools. Then, using teacher survey data, we examine whether the new early college teachers are
more satisfied with their working conditions than their peers. Questions about working conditions focus on satisfaction
with instructional support, leaders’ responsiveness to various teacher concerns, and teachers’ leadership roles. The
lessons learned from examining teachers in this specific school reform model may help to inform strategies for retaining
teachers in other types of schools.
1.1 Retaining Qualified Teachers
Schools face challenges in retaining qualified teachers, some of which have to do with a school’s culture Allensworth,
244
, Journal of Education and Training Studies Vol. 4, No. 4; April 2016
Ponisciak, & Mazzeo, 2009; Boyd, et al., 2011; Curtis, 2012; Jo, 2014; Johnson, Kraft, & Papay, 2012). A school’s
location, student body poverty level, and levels of student achievement affect the likelihood that it will retain qualified
teachers (Allen, 2005; American Association of State Colleges and Universities, 2005; Barnes, Crowe & Schaeffer,
2007; Newton, Rivero, Fuller, & Dauter, 2011). Schools cannot control these factors, but they can control other
elements that influence teacher satisfaction and turnover. Many teachers leave their jobs because of dissatisfaction with
aspects of the school’s culture, lack of administrative support, limited influence on school policies, large teaching loads,
and limited opportunities for professional development (Allensworth, Ponisciak, & Mazzeo, 2009; Boyd, et al., 2011;
Curtis, 2012). The relational aspects of teachers’ working conditions have a strong influence on their job satisfaction
and intention to remain at the school (Jo, 2014; Johnson, Kraft, & Papay, 2012). Teachers tend to report greater job
satisfaction and the intention to remain in their schools when they have positive feelings about the school’s leadership
and their relationships with colleagues. Turnover rates are lower in schools where teachers report better principal
leadership, more autonomy within the classroom, and richer opportunities for professional development (Ingersoll &
May, 2012). Where teachers report higher levels of participation in school decision-making, turnover is also lower (Liu,
2007). These relationships hold net of the schools’ student demographic characteristics. Even in high-poverty schools,
which often face challenges attracting and retaining qualified teachers, teachers leave due to elements of the working
conditions pertaining to school leadership and collegial relationships (Simon & Johnson, 2015). In New York City,
teachers who hold less positive views of their administrators are more likely to transfer or leave teaching entirely than
those who hold more positive views, net of structural factors such as facilities and safety (Boyd et al., 2011). In North
Carolina, the higher the perceived quality of school leadership, the less likely teachers are to leave or plan to leave the
school (Ladd, 2011).
Some teachers leave their jobs to retire or to leave teaching altogether, but many look for better teaching jobs (Ingersoll
& May, 2012; Gray & Taie, 2015; Keigher, 2010). Even when teachers move to a new school, the schools that lose
teachers face disruptions and have to expend resources to hire and train new teachers. In addition, the departure of
teachers may temporarily add to the workload of teachers who remain. Teacher turnover can harm students as well. The
cost of recruiting new teachers can be substantial, and turnover undermines at-risk schools (Barnes, Crowe & Schaefer,
2007). A study of New York schools found that students in schools experiencing high rates of teacher turnover have
lower achievement than those in schools with low teacher turnover rates, net of other student, classroom, and school
characteristics (Ronfeldt, Loeb, & Wyckoff, 2013).
High turnover rates can disrupt the development of organizational capital—a social resource that facilitates cooperation
and communication within an organization, such as a school. Organizational capital has structural, relational, and
cognitive dimensions. The structural dimension refers to the structure of the ties between actors, whereas the relational
dimension refers to the personal relationships, a shared sense of obligation, and trust. The cognitive dimension refers to
a shared understanding of systems (Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998). High instability through teacher turnover does not
affect the structure of the ties between actors, but it harms the relational and cognitive aspects of organizational capital.
When teachers have to be replaced, it takes time for new hires to develop trusting relationships and a shared
understanding of systemic requirements and strategies for meeting organizational goals.
Low organizational functioning and turnover influence each other. Teachers are more likely to leave schools that have
low organizational function, and in schools with high turnover and low stability, leaders have difficulty enforcing
organizational norms and establishing organizational functioning (Holme & Rangel, 2012). This lack of stability may
make it more difficult to implement innovative school reforms because it takes time for teachers to understand the
mission of a new program and the instructional practices best suited for it (Berends, Bodilly, & Kirby, 2002; Desimione,
2002).
Many novice teachers leave the profession before their skills are honed through experience. In the United States, within
5 years of beginning teaching, about 20 percent of new teachers left teaching altogether, and another 10 percent
changed schools. Providing support to novice teachers can influence their decisions to stay in their jobs (Ingersoll,
2012). A higher percentage of new teachers who were assigned a mentor remained in teaching 5 years later compared to
new teachers who did not have a mentor in the same content area (Gray & Taie, 2015). Teachers who received
supports—including having a mentor in the same field, having common planning time, and having scheduled
collaboration with other teachers—were less likely to depart after their first year (Ingersoll, 2012; Harris, 2015). Novice
teachers who shared organizational preferences for practices with their colleagues and who are committed to the goals
of the school were more likely to say they intend to remain teaching in their school (Pogodzinski, Youngs, & Frank,
2013).
245
