UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA (UNISA)
College of Education — Department of Psychology of Education
⋄
ASSESSMENT 04
Cognition and Learning — Year Module 2026
⋄
Module Code: PDP4802
Module Name: Cognition and Learning
Assessment No.: Assessment 04
Due Date: 25 September 2026
Semester: Year Module 2026
Unique Number: 613961
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for PDP4802
at the University of South Africa.
,UNISA | PDP4802 Assessment 04 — Neurodiversity and Dysgraphia
Question 1: Neurodiversity in the Classroom
The concept of neurodiversity has steadily reshaped how educators understand learning dif-
ferences over the past two decades. Rather than framing neurological variation as disorder or
deficit, the neurodiversity paradigm positions cognitive differences as natural, valid expres-
sions of human diversity that deserve recognition and support within inclusive educational
settings (Pellicano and den Houting, 2022, as cited in Alcorn et al., 2024). For Ms. Shabangu
and her fifth-grade class, this framing is not merely philosophical; it has direct, practical con-
sequences for how she designs her lessons, structures her classroom, and responds to learners
such as Alex, Bella, Charlie, and Elaru.
1.1.1 Definition and Discussion of Neurodiversity in the Classroom Context (5 marks)
Neurodiversity, at its core, refers to the natural variation in how human brains are structured
and function. Alcorn et al. (2024:2) describe it simply as the variation present across a group
of individuals in how their brains take in, process, and respond to information. The term
was initially advanced by sociologist Judy Singer in the late 1990s and has since grown into
a broad social justice movement that sits at the intersection of neuroscience, disability stud-
ies, education, and public policy (Kronenberger and Dunn, 2024). In the classroom context,
neurodiversity encompasses all learners, including those whose neurological profiles are consid-
ered typical (neurotypical) as well as those whose profiles diverge from the socially constructed
norm (neurodivergent) (Walker, 2014, as cited in Alcorn et al., 2024).
Within a school setting, neurodiversity is particularly relevant because classrooms are spaces
where cognitive differences become visible. Neurodivergent learners, who may include those
with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD),
dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, and Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD), are often
educated in mainstream classrooms where the dominant instructional approach is designed for
neurotypical learners (Yoro et al., 2020). This mismatch between environment and neurologi-
cal profile creates what Cook (2024) describes as barriers rooted not in the learner’s inability
to learn, but in the educational system’s failure to accommodate diverse cognitive styles.
The neurodiversity paradigm does not deny that neurodivergent learners face real challenges.
Rather, it insists that those challenges are better understood as arising from the interaction
between a learner’s neurological profile and an inflexible environment, rather than from the
profile itself (Cook, 2024). This is a meaningful shift because it moves the locus of change
Page 1 of 14
,UNISA | PDP4802 Assessment 04 — Neurodiversity and Dysgraphia
from the learner to the system. In Ms. Shabangu’s classroom, for instance, the question is
not how Alex, Bella, Charlie, and Elaru can be made to fit the standard lesson structure. The
question is how the lesson structure can be adapted to create genuine access for all four.
Applied to inclusive education in South Africa, this framing aligns directly with the principles
of Education White Paper 6 (DoE, 2001), which promotes the right of all learners, including
those with barriers to learning, to be educated in mainstream settings with appropriate sup-
port (Yoro et al., 2020). Roughly 10 to 30 percent of learners in any given classroom are es-
timated to be neurodivergent in some form (Schaefer and Sanchez, 2024, as cited in Brown
University Sheridan Center, 2024), making neurodiversity-affirming pedagogy not an exception
but a professional necessity.
Key Distinction
Neurodiversity vs. Neurodivergence: These terms are related but not interchange-
able. Neurodiversity is an umbrella concept that describes the full spectrum of neuro-
logical variation across all people, neurotypical and neurodivergent alike. Neurodiver-
gent refers specifically to an individual whose neurological profile differs significantly
from the dominant social norm. Conflating them leads to misapplication of inclusive
strategies (Cook, 2024; Alcorn et al., 2024).
1.1.2 Five Neurodiverse Conditions and Their Impact on Teaching and Learning (10
marks)
1. Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
ASD is a neurodevelopmental condition characterised by differences in social communication,
sensory processing, and a preference for structured, predictable routines (Nthibeli et al., 2022).
In the classroom, a learner with ASD, like Alex in the scenario, may show deep expertise in
a preferred topic such as astronomy while struggling with unstructured social tasks or sud-
den changes in routine. Nthibeli et al. (2022) found that South African teachers who worked
with ASD learners in mainstream classrooms reported that differentiation, scaffolding, visual
cues, and structured routines were the most effective strategies. The key teaching implication
is that the classroom environment itself, including its predictability, sensory intensity, and so-
cial demands, significantly shapes the ASD learner’s capacity to participate.
Page 2 of 14
,UNISA | PDP4802 Assessment 04 — Neurodiversity and Dysgraphia
2. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
ADHD is characterised by a persistent pattern of inattentiveness, hyperactivity, and impulsiv-
ity that disrupts executive functioning, including focus, working memory, and self-regulation
(APA, 2013, as cited in Yoro et al., 2020). In a classroom like Ms. Shabangu’s, a learner pre-
senting like Bella may appear disruptive because she frequently interrupts or leaves her seat.
However, this behaviour stems from neurological dysregulation rather than deliberate defi-
ance. The teaching implication is that ADHD learners benefit from movement breaks, short
task segments, immediate feedback, and clear visual instructions (Structural Learning, 2025).
Treating the behaviour as misconduct without understanding its neurological basis is both
pedagogically and ethically problematic.
3. Dyslexia
Dyslexia is a specific learning difficulty that primarily affects reading and writing, stemming
from differences in phonological processing, despite adequate intelligence and instruction (British
Dyslexia Association, 2023). In class, a learner with dyslexia, such as Charlie in the scenario,
may read and write far below expected level while demonstrating exceptional verbal reason-
ing or creativity. Teachers who treat low written output as low ability misread the profile en-
tirely. Dyslexia-affirming classrooms use audio-supported texts, assistive technology, oral as-
sessments, and multimodal instruction to give the learner full access to the curriculum without
requiring written language as the only gateway.
4. Sensory Processing Differences
Some learners, including many with ASD and Sensory Processing Disorder (SPD), have neu-
rological differences that cause them to experience sensory input, such as light, sound, and
touch, with heightened or reduced intensity relative to neurotypical peers (Alcorn et al., 2024).
Elaru in the scenario, who wears headphones and prefers a quieter corner of the room, is a
clear example. The classroom lighting, noise from group activities, and physical crowding can
be genuinely overwhelming to such a learner, not as a preference but as a physiological expe-
rience. The teaching implication is that sensory-friendly environmental design, including quiet
zones, flexible seating, and reduced visual clutter, is a form of legitimate educational accom-
modation.
Page 3 of 14
, UNISA | PDP4802 Assessment 04 — Neurodiversity and Dysgraphia
5. Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) and Dyspraxia
DCD, also referred to as dyspraxia, involves significant difficulty with motor coordination that
affects daily activities and academic tasks such as handwriting, physical education, and prac-
tical tasks (Yoro et al., 2020). A learner with DCD may produce slow, illegible handwriting
not due to lack of effort or understanding, but because of genuine motor planning differences
at the neurological level. In the classroom, this often goes unrecognised, especially when writ-
ten output is the primary measure of learning. Teachers need to consider alternative modes of
assessment, such as oral responses, typed work, or diagrammatic outputs, so that motor diffi-
culties do not mask cognitive ability.
Table 1: Summary: Five Neurodiverse Conditions
and Classroom Implications
Condition Core Characteristics Teaching Implication
ASD Social communication differ- Predictable structure; visual
ences; sensory sensitivity; prefer- supports; reduced sensory
ence for routine load
ADHD Inattention; hyperactivity; exec- Movement breaks; short
utive function difficulties tasks; immediate feedback
Dyslexia Phonological processing differ- Multimodal input; oral
ences; reading/writing difficul- assessment; assistive tech-
ties nology
Sensory Processing Hyper- or hypo-sensitivity to Quiet zones; flexible seating;
Differences sensory input sensory-friendly environ-
ment
DCD/Dyspraxia Motor planning and coordina- Alternative assessment for-
tion difficulties mats; typed or oral output
options
1.1.3 Specific Classroom Strategies for Alex, Bella, Charlie, and Elaru (10 marks)
Page 4 of 14
College of Education — Department of Psychology of Education
⋄
ASSESSMENT 04
Cognition and Learning — Year Module 2026
⋄
Module Code: PDP4802
Module Name: Cognition and Learning
Assessment No.: Assessment 04
Due Date: 25 September 2026
Semester: Year Module 2026
Unique Number: 613961
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for PDP4802
at the University of South Africa.
,UNISA | PDP4802 Assessment 04 — Neurodiversity and Dysgraphia
Question 1: Neurodiversity in the Classroom
The concept of neurodiversity has steadily reshaped how educators understand learning dif-
ferences over the past two decades. Rather than framing neurological variation as disorder or
deficit, the neurodiversity paradigm positions cognitive differences as natural, valid expres-
sions of human diversity that deserve recognition and support within inclusive educational
settings (Pellicano and den Houting, 2022, as cited in Alcorn et al., 2024). For Ms. Shabangu
and her fifth-grade class, this framing is not merely philosophical; it has direct, practical con-
sequences for how she designs her lessons, structures her classroom, and responds to learners
such as Alex, Bella, Charlie, and Elaru.
1.1.1 Definition and Discussion of Neurodiversity in the Classroom Context (5 marks)
Neurodiversity, at its core, refers to the natural variation in how human brains are structured
and function. Alcorn et al. (2024:2) describe it simply as the variation present across a group
of individuals in how their brains take in, process, and respond to information. The term
was initially advanced by sociologist Judy Singer in the late 1990s and has since grown into
a broad social justice movement that sits at the intersection of neuroscience, disability stud-
ies, education, and public policy (Kronenberger and Dunn, 2024). In the classroom context,
neurodiversity encompasses all learners, including those whose neurological profiles are consid-
ered typical (neurotypical) as well as those whose profiles diverge from the socially constructed
norm (neurodivergent) (Walker, 2014, as cited in Alcorn et al., 2024).
Within a school setting, neurodiversity is particularly relevant because classrooms are spaces
where cognitive differences become visible. Neurodivergent learners, who may include those
with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD),
dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, and Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD), are often
educated in mainstream classrooms where the dominant instructional approach is designed for
neurotypical learners (Yoro et al., 2020). This mismatch between environment and neurologi-
cal profile creates what Cook (2024) describes as barriers rooted not in the learner’s inability
to learn, but in the educational system’s failure to accommodate diverse cognitive styles.
The neurodiversity paradigm does not deny that neurodivergent learners face real challenges.
Rather, it insists that those challenges are better understood as arising from the interaction
between a learner’s neurological profile and an inflexible environment, rather than from the
profile itself (Cook, 2024). This is a meaningful shift because it moves the locus of change
Page 1 of 14
,UNISA | PDP4802 Assessment 04 — Neurodiversity and Dysgraphia
from the learner to the system. In Ms. Shabangu’s classroom, for instance, the question is
not how Alex, Bella, Charlie, and Elaru can be made to fit the standard lesson structure. The
question is how the lesson structure can be adapted to create genuine access for all four.
Applied to inclusive education in South Africa, this framing aligns directly with the principles
of Education White Paper 6 (DoE, 2001), which promotes the right of all learners, including
those with barriers to learning, to be educated in mainstream settings with appropriate sup-
port (Yoro et al., 2020). Roughly 10 to 30 percent of learners in any given classroom are es-
timated to be neurodivergent in some form (Schaefer and Sanchez, 2024, as cited in Brown
University Sheridan Center, 2024), making neurodiversity-affirming pedagogy not an exception
but a professional necessity.
Key Distinction
Neurodiversity vs. Neurodivergence: These terms are related but not interchange-
able. Neurodiversity is an umbrella concept that describes the full spectrum of neuro-
logical variation across all people, neurotypical and neurodivergent alike. Neurodiver-
gent refers specifically to an individual whose neurological profile differs significantly
from the dominant social norm. Conflating them leads to misapplication of inclusive
strategies (Cook, 2024; Alcorn et al., 2024).
1.1.2 Five Neurodiverse Conditions and Their Impact on Teaching and Learning (10
marks)
1. Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
ASD is a neurodevelopmental condition characterised by differences in social communication,
sensory processing, and a preference for structured, predictable routines (Nthibeli et al., 2022).
In the classroom, a learner with ASD, like Alex in the scenario, may show deep expertise in
a preferred topic such as astronomy while struggling with unstructured social tasks or sud-
den changes in routine. Nthibeli et al. (2022) found that South African teachers who worked
with ASD learners in mainstream classrooms reported that differentiation, scaffolding, visual
cues, and structured routines were the most effective strategies. The key teaching implication
is that the classroom environment itself, including its predictability, sensory intensity, and so-
cial demands, significantly shapes the ASD learner’s capacity to participate.
Page 2 of 14
,UNISA | PDP4802 Assessment 04 — Neurodiversity and Dysgraphia
2. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
ADHD is characterised by a persistent pattern of inattentiveness, hyperactivity, and impulsiv-
ity that disrupts executive functioning, including focus, working memory, and self-regulation
(APA, 2013, as cited in Yoro et al., 2020). In a classroom like Ms. Shabangu’s, a learner pre-
senting like Bella may appear disruptive because she frequently interrupts or leaves her seat.
However, this behaviour stems from neurological dysregulation rather than deliberate defi-
ance. The teaching implication is that ADHD learners benefit from movement breaks, short
task segments, immediate feedback, and clear visual instructions (Structural Learning, 2025).
Treating the behaviour as misconduct without understanding its neurological basis is both
pedagogically and ethically problematic.
3. Dyslexia
Dyslexia is a specific learning difficulty that primarily affects reading and writing, stemming
from differences in phonological processing, despite adequate intelligence and instruction (British
Dyslexia Association, 2023). In class, a learner with dyslexia, such as Charlie in the scenario,
may read and write far below expected level while demonstrating exceptional verbal reason-
ing or creativity. Teachers who treat low written output as low ability misread the profile en-
tirely. Dyslexia-affirming classrooms use audio-supported texts, assistive technology, oral as-
sessments, and multimodal instruction to give the learner full access to the curriculum without
requiring written language as the only gateway.
4. Sensory Processing Differences
Some learners, including many with ASD and Sensory Processing Disorder (SPD), have neu-
rological differences that cause them to experience sensory input, such as light, sound, and
touch, with heightened or reduced intensity relative to neurotypical peers (Alcorn et al., 2024).
Elaru in the scenario, who wears headphones and prefers a quieter corner of the room, is a
clear example. The classroom lighting, noise from group activities, and physical crowding can
be genuinely overwhelming to such a learner, not as a preference but as a physiological expe-
rience. The teaching implication is that sensory-friendly environmental design, including quiet
zones, flexible seating, and reduced visual clutter, is a form of legitimate educational accom-
modation.
Page 3 of 14
, UNISA | PDP4802 Assessment 04 — Neurodiversity and Dysgraphia
5. Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) and Dyspraxia
DCD, also referred to as dyspraxia, involves significant difficulty with motor coordination that
affects daily activities and academic tasks such as handwriting, physical education, and prac-
tical tasks (Yoro et al., 2020). A learner with DCD may produce slow, illegible handwriting
not due to lack of effort or understanding, but because of genuine motor planning differences
at the neurological level. In the classroom, this often goes unrecognised, especially when writ-
ten output is the primary measure of learning. Teachers need to consider alternative modes of
assessment, such as oral responses, typed work, or diagrammatic outputs, so that motor diffi-
culties do not mask cognitive ability.
Table 1: Summary: Five Neurodiverse Conditions
and Classroom Implications
Condition Core Characteristics Teaching Implication
ASD Social communication differ- Predictable structure; visual
ences; sensory sensitivity; prefer- supports; reduced sensory
ence for routine load
ADHD Inattention; hyperactivity; exec- Movement breaks; short
utive function difficulties tasks; immediate feedback
Dyslexia Phonological processing differ- Multimodal input; oral
ences; reading/writing difficul- assessment; assistive tech-
ties nology
Sensory Processing Hyper- or hypo-sensitivity to Quiet zones; flexible seating;
Differences sensory input sensory-friendly environ-
ment
DCD/Dyspraxia Motor planning and coordina- Alternative assessment for-
tion difficulties mats; typed or oral output
options
1.1.3 Specific Classroom Strategies for Alex, Bella, Charlie, and Elaru (10 marks)
Page 4 of 14
