Intro to Psychology /
SEM
01
Prefinals Topic : Memory , Cognitive perspective ,
Psychodynamic perspective and Humanistic
perspective
Attention and Memory
● Attention is Crucial: Paying attention is essential for
Enriching Encoding
memory. Lack of attention during encoding leads to poor
recall.
● Selective Attention: Attention involves focusing on a narrow ● Elaboration: Linking a stimulus to other information at the
range of stimuli. It filters out irrelevant information, time of encoding.
preventing chaos. ● Example: Relating the concept of classical
● Divided Attention Impairs Memory: Multitasking reduces conditioning to your own fear of spiders.
memory performance, especially when tasks are complex ● Elaboration creates additional connections,
or unfamiliar. The brain effectively handles one improving memory.
attention-consuming task at a time. ● Visual Imagery: Creating visual images to represent words.
● Example: Cell phone use while driving impairs ● Easier for concrete objects (e.g., juggler) than
driving performance and memory of abstract concepts (e.g., truth).
conversations. ● Dual-Coding Theory (Paivio): Memory is enhanced by
● Switching, Not Simultaneous Processing: Multitasking forming both semantic and visual codes. Two codes are
involves rapidly switching attention between tasks. better than one.
● Example: High-imagery word pairs (juggler-dress)
are recalled better than low-imagery pairs
(quality-necessity)
Levels of Processing
● Levels-of-Processing Theory (Craik & Lockhart): Different
encoding methods create memory codes of varying Key Terms
durability.
● Three Levels of Processing (Verbal Information):
● Structural Encoding (Shallow): Focuses on the
physical structure of the stimulus (e.g., ● Encoding: The process of getting information into memory.
capitalization, length). ● Attention: Focusing awareness on a narrowed range of
● Example Question: Is the word written in stimuli or events.
capital letters? ● Selective Attention: The selection of input; filtering out
● Phonemic Encoding (Intermediate): Emphasizes irrelevant information.
the sound of a word. ● Structural Encoding: Encoding that emphasizes the
● Example Question: Does the word rhyme physical structure of a stimulus.
with weight? ● Phonemic Encoding: Encoding that emphasizes the sound
● Semantic Encoding (Deep): Focuses on the of a word.
meaning of the word. ● Semantic Encoding: Encoding that emphasizes the
● Example Question: Would the word fit in meaning of a word.
the sentence: "He met a _______ on the ● Elaboration: Linking a stimulus to other information at the
street"? time of encoding.
● Deeper Processing = Better Memory: Semantic encoding ● Visual Imagery: Creating visual images to represent words.
leads to more durable memory codes than phonemic or ● Dual-Coding Theory: The theory that memory is enhanced
structural encoding. by forming both semantic and visual codes.
● Experimental Evidence (Craik & Tulving, 1975): Recall was
lowest after structural encoding, better after phonemic
encoding, and highest after semantic encoding.
, Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Subdivided into Semantic and Episodic.
Retrieval
Declarative Memory: Facts and Events
a. Semantic Memory (General Knowledge): Facts
- Memory is the process by which we encode, store, and about the world and rules of logic.
retrieve information.
What is the zip code of Davao City?
What is the value of Pi?
Core Processes (the Computer Analogy)
b. Episodic Memory (Events/Experiences): Memory
- Encoding: Initial recording of information (The Keyboard). for specific events that occurred in a particular
- Storage: Maintaining information over time (The Hard Drive). time, place, and context.
- Retrieval: Locating and accessing stored information (The
Software/Display). What you ate for breakfast this morning?
What was your first day in college like?
3 distinct storage areas for memory (Atkinson-Shiffrin Procedural Memory (Implicit): Muscle memory
Model) - Memory for skills, habits, and processes. Does
not require conscious recall. (Knowing how)
● Sensory Memory - gone in an instant Memory for skills and habits (e.g., riding a bike, tying a
Initial, momentary storage of sensory information. knot, touch-typing). Often learned through repetition and is
It stores an exact replica of the stimulus. resistant to forgetting. It happens automatically once
mastered.
Duration: Extremely brief—it lasts only an instant.
- Iconic Memory (Visual): Fades in less than 1 Working Memory: STM is Working Harder Now
second. (Think of sparklers leaving trails of light)
Most modern theorists view STM as Working Memory (WM)—an
active system
- Echoic Memory (Auditory): Fades within 2-3 that not only stores information but also actively manipulates and
seconds. rehearses it.
Components (Baddeley & Hitch):
Central Executive: Coordinates and controls attention (The CEO).
● Short term memory ( STM) - Limited working space Visual Store (Visuospatial Sketchpad): Holds visual and spatial info.
Hold information for 15 to 25 seconds without rehearsal. Verbal Store (Phonological Loop): Holds and rehearses verbal
information.
- Capacity: Limited to approximately seven items Episodic Buffer: Connects information across the other systems and
(chunks), plus or minus two. integrates it with LTM.
- Chunking: grouping items that can be processed
as a single unit. This expands the practical Memory is NOT a Video Recorder
capacity of STM.
Memory is a constructive process. When we retrieve information,
● Long-term memory (LTM) - Permanent archive we are influenced by our current knowledge, expectations, guesses,
and inferences. Memories can be (and often are) inaccurate
Information maintained on a relatively permanent because they are reconstructed,not played back perfectly.
basis. Retrieval is the biggest challenge here.
Fundamental vulnerabilities exploited by gaslighters:
Key Technique: Elaborative Rehearsal
Organizing, linking to existing memories, or - Exploiting Inaccuracy and Reconstruction (strategically inducing
transforming information to give it meaning. This is far doubt)influencing Current Knowledge and Expectations
superior to rote (maintenance) rehearsal. (incorporation)
- Inferences and Guesses (the gaslighter must be right!)
LTM Modularity: Declarative vs. Procedural
Declarative Memory (Explicit): Memory for factual
Schemas: Organizational Mental Blueprints for Memory
information. Requires conscious recall. (What, Who,
When, Where).
SEM
01
Prefinals Topic : Memory , Cognitive perspective ,
Psychodynamic perspective and Humanistic
perspective
Attention and Memory
● Attention is Crucial: Paying attention is essential for
Enriching Encoding
memory. Lack of attention during encoding leads to poor
recall.
● Selective Attention: Attention involves focusing on a narrow ● Elaboration: Linking a stimulus to other information at the
range of stimuli. It filters out irrelevant information, time of encoding.
preventing chaos. ● Example: Relating the concept of classical
● Divided Attention Impairs Memory: Multitasking reduces conditioning to your own fear of spiders.
memory performance, especially when tasks are complex ● Elaboration creates additional connections,
or unfamiliar. The brain effectively handles one improving memory.
attention-consuming task at a time. ● Visual Imagery: Creating visual images to represent words.
● Example: Cell phone use while driving impairs ● Easier for concrete objects (e.g., juggler) than
driving performance and memory of abstract concepts (e.g., truth).
conversations. ● Dual-Coding Theory (Paivio): Memory is enhanced by
● Switching, Not Simultaneous Processing: Multitasking forming both semantic and visual codes. Two codes are
involves rapidly switching attention between tasks. better than one.
● Example: High-imagery word pairs (juggler-dress)
are recalled better than low-imagery pairs
(quality-necessity)
Levels of Processing
● Levels-of-Processing Theory (Craik & Lockhart): Different
encoding methods create memory codes of varying Key Terms
durability.
● Three Levels of Processing (Verbal Information):
● Structural Encoding (Shallow): Focuses on the
physical structure of the stimulus (e.g., ● Encoding: The process of getting information into memory.
capitalization, length). ● Attention: Focusing awareness on a narrowed range of
● Example Question: Is the word written in stimuli or events.
capital letters? ● Selective Attention: The selection of input; filtering out
● Phonemic Encoding (Intermediate): Emphasizes irrelevant information.
the sound of a word. ● Structural Encoding: Encoding that emphasizes the
● Example Question: Does the word rhyme physical structure of a stimulus.
with weight? ● Phonemic Encoding: Encoding that emphasizes the sound
● Semantic Encoding (Deep): Focuses on the of a word.
meaning of the word. ● Semantic Encoding: Encoding that emphasizes the
● Example Question: Would the word fit in meaning of a word.
the sentence: "He met a _______ on the ● Elaboration: Linking a stimulus to other information at the
street"? time of encoding.
● Deeper Processing = Better Memory: Semantic encoding ● Visual Imagery: Creating visual images to represent words.
leads to more durable memory codes than phonemic or ● Dual-Coding Theory: The theory that memory is enhanced
structural encoding. by forming both semantic and visual codes.
● Experimental Evidence (Craik & Tulving, 1975): Recall was
lowest after structural encoding, better after phonemic
encoding, and highest after semantic encoding.
, Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Subdivided into Semantic and Episodic.
Retrieval
Declarative Memory: Facts and Events
a. Semantic Memory (General Knowledge): Facts
- Memory is the process by which we encode, store, and about the world and rules of logic.
retrieve information.
What is the zip code of Davao City?
What is the value of Pi?
Core Processes (the Computer Analogy)
b. Episodic Memory (Events/Experiences): Memory
- Encoding: Initial recording of information (The Keyboard). for specific events that occurred in a particular
- Storage: Maintaining information over time (The Hard Drive). time, place, and context.
- Retrieval: Locating and accessing stored information (The
Software/Display). What you ate for breakfast this morning?
What was your first day in college like?
3 distinct storage areas for memory (Atkinson-Shiffrin Procedural Memory (Implicit): Muscle memory
Model) - Memory for skills, habits, and processes. Does
not require conscious recall. (Knowing how)
● Sensory Memory - gone in an instant Memory for skills and habits (e.g., riding a bike, tying a
Initial, momentary storage of sensory information. knot, touch-typing). Often learned through repetition and is
It stores an exact replica of the stimulus. resistant to forgetting. It happens automatically once
mastered.
Duration: Extremely brief—it lasts only an instant.
- Iconic Memory (Visual): Fades in less than 1 Working Memory: STM is Working Harder Now
second. (Think of sparklers leaving trails of light)
Most modern theorists view STM as Working Memory (WM)—an
active system
- Echoic Memory (Auditory): Fades within 2-3 that not only stores information but also actively manipulates and
seconds. rehearses it.
Components (Baddeley & Hitch):
Central Executive: Coordinates and controls attention (The CEO).
● Short term memory ( STM) - Limited working space Visual Store (Visuospatial Sketchpad): Holds visual and spatial info.
Hold information for 15 to 25 seconds without rehearsal. Verbal Store (Phonological Loop): Holds and rehearses verbal
information.
- Capacity: Limited to approximately seven items Episodic Buffer: Connects information across the other systems and
(chunks), plus or minus two. integrates it with LTM.
- Chunking: grouping items that can be processed
as a single unit. This expands the practical Memory is NOT a Video Recorder
capacity of STM.
Memory is a constructive process. When we retrieve information,
● Long-term memory (LTM) - Permanent archive we are influenced by our current knowledge, expectations, guesses,
and inferences. Memories can be (and often are) inaccurate
Information maintained on a relatively permanent because they are reconstructed,not played back perfectly.
basis. Retrieval is the biggest challenge here.
Fundamental vulnerabilities exploited by gaslighters:
Key Technique: Elaborative Rehearsal
Organizing, linking to existing memories, or - Exploiting Inaccuracy and Reconstruction (strategically inducing
transforming information to give it meaning. This is far doubt)influencing Current Knowledge and Expectations
superior to rote (maintenance) rehearsal. (incorporation)
- Inferences and Guesses (the gaslighter must be right!)
LTM Modularity: Declarative vs. Procedural
Declarative Memory (Explicit): Memory for factual
Schemas: Organizational Mental Blueprints for Memory
information. Requires conscious recall. (What, Who,
When, Where).
