Topic Sociologist/ Key findings
Theory
Statistics N/A KS1-3: 2018- 68% girls at expected standard or above, 60% of boys. (2019 increased to 10% gap).
GCSE: 2018 7 or above – 20% of pupils in total: 17% boys and 23% girls. 2019- 72% girls 4 or above, 63% boys.
A-level: 2018, A* to C, 79% girls, 75% boys. 2019- 3.9% gap in A* to C attainment.
External factors Impact of Improving women's rights and changes in opportunity due to the law. Raises women's expectations and self-
Feminism esteem. McRobbie (1994)- study of magazines shows a shift from getting married to the assertive, independent
women. This affects girls self-esteem and ambition in regard to their futures.
Changes in the Increase in lone parent families - financially independent female role model = well paid jobs and good
family qualifications.
Increase in divorce rate unwise to rely on a breadwinner husband = look after themselves and their own
qualifications.
Changes in Laws- Equal Pay Act 1970 and Sex Discrimination Act 1975. More women in work. Breaking the ‘glass ceiling’.
women's Encourages girls to see a future career, plus role models reinforces this, giving them an incentive to gain
employment qualifications.
Girls changing Sharpe (1994)- 1974, common to have low aspirations as otherwise seen as unfeminine. 1990s, increase in girls
ambitions having high aspirations and putting their careers first.
O’Connor (2006) – 14-17 year olds marriage and children weren’t a major part of their life plans. In order to
achieve independence and self-sufficiency many now recognise the importance of education.
Cultural Parents are more likely to read to girls than boys. Cultural deprivation affects boys more and means girls are more
deprivation likely to have an elaborated code. Things like sitting still and following instructions will come easier to girls e.g.,
colouring inside vs playing football.
Impact of class Biggart (2002)- working class girls are more likely to take precarious position in the Labour market and see
motherhood as the only viable option for their futures and therefore they see less point in achieving in education-
there is a disparity in achievement within gender.
Internal factors Equal opportunity Policies such as Girls In Science and Technology (GIST) and Women In Science and Engineering (WISE), have
policies encouraged girls to pursue careers in previously male dominated areas. Non-sexist career advice has also been
provided and efforts had been made to make science teachers more aware of gender issues. The national
curriculum also made education meritocratic as girls and boys now study the same subjects e.g. all students must
now take English maths and science actually CSA.
Positive role Increase in female head teachers as playing leading role in schools – positive role model e.g. in 2012 71% of head
models teachers in primary schools were women. Disadvantage boys.
BUT 2018 – only 38% of head teachers at state secondary schools in England are women.
GCSE and Mitos and Broune (1998) - girls are more conscientious and better organised than boys allowing them to do better
coursework in coursework e.g. spending time working, meeting deadlines. Oral exams benefit girls due to language skills. Girls
, are socialised to be neat, tidy and patient at home.
Teacher attention French (1993)- boys received more attention because they attracted more reprimands. Francis (2001)- boys were
disciplined more harshly and felt picked on by teachers who had lower expectations. Swan (1998)- boys
dominate whole class discussions whereas girls preferred paired work as they are better at listening and
cooperating. Teachers are more likely to see girls as cooperative - this may lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Challenging The removal of gender stereotypes from textbooks along with many sexist images have now produced positive
stereotypes in the images of women in work - girls don't internalise sexist stereotypes.
curriculum
Selection and Girls are more likely to be recruited to ‘good’ or ‘outstanding’ schools as they are seen as desirable because they
league tables achieve better exam results.
Theories Liberal feminist Improved gender socialisation and anti-discrimination legislation helps us to explain why girls are doing better
than boys. There has been real progress on female equality.
Radical feminist Education is still patriarchal; girls are still pushed into ‘gendered subjects’ and suffer from sexual harassment.
Identity and Symbolic capital Archer - to gain status and recognition through tastes/ appearance.
class Working class There is a conflict between working class girls’ feminine identities and values of the school (middle class):
girls’ feminine 1. ‘Glamorous’ hyper heterosexual feminine identities vs Desexualised identity
identities 2. Wearing black urban American styles vs Neutral or modest appearance
3. Unisex sportswear vs Wearing smart-casual clothes
4. Attention to makeup and hairstyles vs Focus on study
Hyper- Symbolic violence- there is tension between the ‘symbolic capital’ amongst working class girls regarding dress/
heterosexual attitude and schools ‘educational capital’. The school's ‘othering’ of the girls as ‘worthless’ gives them the
feminine message that school ‘isn't for them’.
identities
Boyfriends Bought symbolic capital but got in the way of school work and lowered girls’ aspirations. Losing interest in going to
University and studying ‘masculine subjects’, e.g. science or a professional career. Aspired to ‘settle down’, have
children and work locally and in working class feminine jobs e.g. childcare.
Being loud Loud feminine identity = outspoken, independent and assertive e.g. questioning teachers authority. Failed to
conform to the school stereotype of the ideal female pupil as passive and submissive to authority and brought
about conflict with teachers who interpreted their behaviour as aggressive rather than assertive.
Working class Symbolic capital from their peers (conforming to the hyper-heterosexual feminine identity) or gaining
girls’ dilemma educational capital (rejecting their identity and conforming to the schools’ notion of a respectable, ideal female
pupil). Define themselves as having a ‘good underneath’ (despite the teachers’ negative views about them),
reflects a girls’ struggle to achieve a sense of self-worth within an education system that devalues working class
feminine identities and can cause educational underachievement
‘Successful’ Evans (2009)- 21 working class sixth form girls in a south London comprehensive school. Some girls wanted to go to
Theory
Statistics N/A KS1-3: 2018- 68% girls at expected standard or above, 60% of boys. (2019 increased to 10% gap).
GCSE: 2018 7 or above – 20% of pupils in total: 17% boys and 23% girls. 2019- 72% girls 4 or above, 63% boys.
A-level: 2018, A* to C, 79% girls, 75% boys. 2019- 3.9% gap in A* to C attainment.
External factors Impact of Improving women's rights and changes in opportunity due to the law. Raises women's expectations and self-
Feminism esteem. McRobbie (1994)- study of magazines shows a shift from getting married to the assertive, independent
women. This affects girls self-esteem and ambition in regard to their futures.
Changes in the Increase in lone parent families - financially independent female role model = well paid jobs and good
family qualifications.
Increase in divorce rate unwise to rely on a breadwinner husband = look after themselves and their own
qualifications.
Changes in Laws- Equal Pay Act 1970 and Sex Discrimination Act 1975. More women in work. Breaking the ‘glass ceiling’.
women's Encourages girls to see a future career, plus role models reinforces this, giving them an incentive to gain
employment qualifications.
Girls changing Sharpe (1994)- 1974, common to have low aspirations as otherwise seen as unfeminine. 1990s, increase in girls
ambitions having high aspirations and putting their careers first.
O’Connor (2006) – 14-17 year olds marriage and children weren’t a major part of their life plans. In order to
achieve independence and self-sufficiency many now recognise the importance of education.
Cultural Parents are more likely to read to girls than boys. Cultural deprivation affects boys more and means girls are more
deprivation likely to have an elaborated code. Things like sitting still and following instructions will come easier to girls e.g.,
colouring inside vs playing football.
Impact of class Biggart (2002)- working class girls are more likely to take precarious position in the Labour market and see
motherhood as the only viable option for their futures and therefore they see less point in achieving in education-
there is a disparity in achievement within gender.
Internal factors Equal opportunity Policies such as Girls In Science and Technology (GIST) and Women In Science and Engineering (WISE), have
policies encouraged girls to pursue careers in previously male dominated areas. Non-sexist career advice has also been
provided and efforts had been made to make science teachers more aware of gender issues. The national
curriculum also made education meritocratic as girls and boys now study the same subjects e.g. all students must
now take English maths and science actually CSA.
Positive role Increase in female head teachers as playing leading role in schools – positive role model e.g. in 2012 71% of head
models teachers in primary schools were women. Disadvantage boys.
BUT 2018 – only 38% of head teachers at state secondary schools in England are women.
GCSE and Mitos and Broune (1998) - girls are more conscientious and better organised than boys allowing them to do better
coursework in coursework e.g. spending time working, meeting deadlines. Oral exams benefit girls due to language skills. Girls
, are socialised to be neat, tidy and patient at home.
Teacher attention French (1993)- boys received more attention because they attracted more reprimands. Francis (2001)- boys were
disciplined more harshly and felt picked on by teachers who had lower expectations. Swan (1998)- boys
dominate whole class discussions whereas girls preferred paired work as they are better at listening and
cooperating. Teachers are more likely to see girls as cooperative - this may lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Challenging The removal of gender stereotypes from textbooks along with many sexist images have now produced positive
stereotypes in the images of women in work - girls don't internalise sexist stereotypes.
curriculum
Selection and Girls are more likely to be recruited to ‘good’ or ‘outstanding’ schools as they are seen as desirable because they
league tables achieve better exam results.
Theories Liberal feminist Improved gender socialisation and anti-discrimination legislation helps us to explain why girls are doing better
than boys. There has been real progress on female equality.
Radical feminist Education is still patriarchal; girls are still pushed into ‘gendered subjects’ and suffer from sexual harassment.
Identity and Symbolic capital Archer - to gain status and recognition through tastes/ appearance.
class Working class There is a conflict between working class girls’ feminine identities and values of the school (middle class):
girls’ feminine 1. ‘Glamorous’ hyper heterosexual feminine identities vs Desexualised identity
identities 2. Wearing black urban American styles vs Neutral or modest appearance
3. Unisex sportswear vs Wearing smart-casual clothes
4. Attention to makeup and hairstyles vs Focus on study
Hyper- Symbolic violence- there is tension between the ‘symbolic capital’ amongst working class girls regarding dress/
heterosexual attitude and schools ‘educational capital’. The school's ‘othering’ of the girls as ‘worthless’ gives them the
feminine message that school ‘isn't for them’.
identities
Boyfriends Bought symbolic capital but got in the way of school work and lowered girls’ aspirations. Losing interest in going to
University and studying ‘masculine subjects’, e.g. science or a professional career. Aspired to ‘settle down’, have
children and work locally and in working class feminine jobs e.g. childcare.
Being loud Loud feminine identity = outspoken, independent and assertive e.g. questioning teachers authority. Failed to
conform to the school stereotype of the ideal female pupil as passive and submissive to authority and brought
about conflict with teachers who interpreted their behaviour as aggressive rather than assertive.
Working class Symbolic capital from their peers (conforming to the hyper-heterosexual feminine identity) or gaining
girls’ dilemma educational capital (rejecting their identity and conforming to the schools’ notion of a respectable, ideal female
pupil). Define themselves as having a ‘good underneath’ (despite the teachers’ negative views about them),
reflects a girls’ struggle to achieve a sense of self-worth within an education system that devalues working class
feminine identities and can cause educational underachievement
‘Successful’ Evans (2009)- 21 working class sixth form girls in a south London comprehensive school. Some girls wanted to go to
