1. The establishment and early years of the Weimar Republic, 1918-24
EVENT DETAIL
TOPIC 1. IMPACT OF WAR, POLITICAL CRISES OF OCTOBER TO NOVEMBER 1918, AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE WEIMAR CONSTITUTION
• September 1918 – German army was on the brink of defeat. Ludendorff wanted to negotiate an armistice, but knew that Allies
(especially Wilson, guided by his 14 Points) would not negotiate with an autocratic monarch, so he advised for rapid political reforms to
make Germany appear more democratic and secure more lenient terms.
• October Reforms 'revolution from above' – Kaiser appointed Prince Max of Baden as Chancellor, who attempted to give the Reichstag
more power. However, this did not go far enough to satisfy the Allies…
• The Peace Note – Prince Max wrote to Wilson requesting an armistice based on the 14 Points. Wilson's response effectively demanded
German surrender and the Kaiser's abdication as a condition.
• Public reaction – News that Germany was on the brink of defeat shattered public morale. After years of wartime hardship and food
shortages, Germans felt betrayed and humiliated, fuelling revolutionary sentiment.
• Wilhelmshaven Mutiny (30th Oct) – At Germany's main naval base, sailors refused to sail for a final battle against Britain and mutinied
(seen as a pointless sacrifice for Kaiser's honour). This was the first open act of revolution - the navy had lost respect for the Kaiser.
• Kiel Mutiny (3rd Nov) – Mutiny spread to Kiel, where sailors seized control of the port and established workers' and soldiers' councils.
This marked the start of the November Revolution.
• Spread of revolution – Revolutionary councils seized control of major cities. On 8th Nov, a Bavarian Republic was declared in Munich.
THE KAISER'S By 9th Nov, the movement had reached Berlin.
ABDICATION • Abdication of the Kaiser – Threat of a general strike in Berlin led to collapse of the Kaiser's government on 9th Nov. Prince Max
announced the Kaiser's abdication to calm the unrest, then transferred the chancellorship to Ebert (unconstitutionally, as only Kaiser
could appoint one). General Groener confirmed the army would not fight for the Kaiser… he had little choice but to abdicate.
What were the key reasons for the Kaiser's abdication?
Military collapse forced Ludendorff to seek an armistice, but Wilson refused to negotiate with an autocratic monarch, making the Kaiser's
removal a condition of peace. The October Reforms came too late to satisfy the Allies, while the Kiel Mutiny sparked a November
Revolution that spread rapidly, showing the Kaiser had lost control. With public morale shattered by years of hardship and Groener
confirming the army would not fight for him, the Kaiser had lost all military, political, and popular support.
Was there a revolution?
Whether the 1918-19 'German Revolution' amounted to a revolution is debatable. The Kaiser had gone and parliamentary democracy
had been introduced. But there had been no social revolution. The civil service, judiciary and army all remained intact and there was no
major change in the structure of big business and land ownership.
• Pressure on Ebert from the Left – Councils (dominated by USPD & Spartacists) had led the revolution and expected to control key
decisions. On 22nd Nov, Ebert agreed the government would rule in the name of the Berlin councils (a temporary compromise).
However, many USPD leaders wanted the revolution to be pushed further (e.g. nationalise industry, democratise army/civil
service/judiciary, break up aristocratic estates).
• Pressure on Ebert from the Right – Army officers feared a Bolshevik-style revolution. The secret Ebert-Groener Pact (10th Nov) secured
THE STRUGGLE army support in return for resisting left-wing revolution and preserving the existing military structure - left saw this as betrayal.
FOR POWER
• Ebert suppresses the left (backed by the army) – Spartacist demonstration shot at, 16 killed (6 Dec); sailors' revolt crushed, three USPD
ministers resigned (23-24 Dec); Spartacist Uprising crushed after a week of fighting (6 Jan).
Was the pact successful? Only in the short term - prevented a communist takeover and stabilised the transition, but further fractured the
left, triggered uprisings, and by leaving the elites intact, kept in place the very forces that would later undermine Weimar.
THE WEIMAR How did the government function?
CONSTITUTION • President appointed Chancellor (needed ½ Reichstag support)
• Reichstag debated and approved laws, elected every 4 years.
• Reichsrat represented the 17 Länder, could advise or veto laws
• Elections: On 19th January 1919, Ebert organised elections for a Constituent Assembly to draft a new democratic constitution to
replace Bismarck's autocratic imperial system.
• Results: 80% of the electorate voted - SPD: 163, Z: 91, DDP: 75, DNVP: 44, USPD: 22, DVP: 19. Ebert became President, Scheidemann
Chancellor, and a coalition of SPD, Z, DDP emerged (75% of seats), all of which were committed to the republic & democracy.
• Constitution: In February 1919, the National Assembly met at Weimar (Berlin was unsafe due to Spartacist threat) to draft the new
constitution, which was passed in July by 262 votes to 75 (Nationalists and USPD opposed it).
Strengths of the Constitution
• Full democracy, equal voting rights, fundamental rights of citizens guaranteed, proportional representation represented all parties
fairly.
, Weaknesses of the Constitution
• Article 48 – Rule by presidential decree in emergencies, bypassing Reichstag/undermining democracy (Ebert used it 136 times)
• Tolerance of undemocratic institutions – Army, judiciary, civil service continued to wield power (anti-democratic, conservative)
• Strong presidential powers – Could appoint/dismiss chancellors, dissolve Reichstag, Supreme Commander of Armed Forces, A. 48
• Proportional representation – Led to proliferation of small parties, which fragmented Reichstag creating short-lived, unstable coalitions
TOPIC 2. THE IMPACT OF THE VERSAILLES SETTLEMENT ON GERMANY
● The German delegation was not allowed to participate in the discussions about the terms of the Treaty.
● Once the Allies had agreed on the terms, the German government was allowed to suggest only minor changes.
● The German government was given seven days to accept or reject the treaty - rejection would have led to a resumption of the
fighting, and the German army High Command advised that military resistance would be futile.
● Divisions in Germany over whether to sign the Treaty led to a political crisis and the fall of the Scheidemann government.
VERSAILLES Terms of the treaty… LAMBLON
PEACE
• 1) Territorial losses – Lost 13% of territory and 6M people, Alsace-Lorraine to France (national pride), Polish Corridor to Poland
SETTLEMENT
(separated East Prussia), Saarland under League control (industrial loss), all overseas colonies lost (loss of empire & world power status).
• 2) Disarmament – Army limited 100,000 men - no conscription, no tanks, no aircraft; Navy limited to 6 battleships, no submarines;
Rhineland demilitarised under Allied occupation.
• 3) Reparations – £6.6 billion (1921). Also lost merchant fleet, rail stock, patents.
• 4) Blame – 'War guilt clause' (Art. 231), forced Germany to accept full moral responsibility for causing all loss and damage during WWI.
• 5) Other terms – Excluded from the League of Nations, Anschluss (union with Austria) expressly forbidden.
The Treaty both united and divided German opinion. Most agreed that they had been burdened…
● Treaty was a humiliating 'diktat' at variance with Wilson's 14 Points (expected some leniency).
● The 'war guilt clause' was unfair because Germans had believed that they were fighting a just war.
● Reparations were too harsh and economically crippling (e.g. Keynes argued they were unworkable and politically unwise)
● They had been denied their right to national self-determination, while smaller nations (e.g. Poles, Czechs) had been respected.
Political divisions were made worse by the signing of the Treaty… while the republic was born in the shadow of defeat and humiliation:
Pro-republican parties (SPD, DDP, Z - who appeared weak and unpatriotic, undermining public confidence in democracy)…
● Had been forced to sign the Treaty, as Germany was too weak to resist.
● The policy of 'fulfilment', adopted as a pragmatic response, meant that Germany would outwardly comply with the terms of
the Treaty while trying to find ways to modify it or get around it.
Anti-republican parties (DVP, DNVP) and ex-soldiers who joined the Freikorps…
POLITICAL ● They believed the Treaty was another betrayal alongside the 1918 November Revolution and the armistice. Hindenburg and
IMPACT OF Lundendorff encouraged the 'stab-in-the-back' myth to hide their own blame, which claimed the war had not been lost due to
VERSAILLES
military defeat but as a result of the betrayal of 'unpatriotic forces' (pacifists, socialists, Jews - so-called 'November Criminals').
TREATY
● This drove many towards extremist, anti-republican groups committed to overthrowing the republic (e.g. Freikorps, DNVP).
Were German complaints justified?
● Wilson's Points already implied territorial loss & disarmament.
● Treaty less harsh than what France wanted (no Rhineland independence).
● Brest-Litovsk Treaty (1918): Germany had imposed harsher terms on Russia.
● Germany's own war aims (1914) were harsh - hypocrisy in complaint.
Reactions to the Treaty from abroad (Lloyd George, Wilson, Clemenceau)
• Britain – General satisfaction that Germany had been weakened, but had reservations about the Treaty's fairness and wisdom.
• USA – Widespread feeling that it was overly vindictive and self-serving - refused to join LoN, signed separate peace w/ Germany (1921).
• France – Widespread feeling that Germany had been treated too leniently and determination to strictly enforce the Treaty.
TOPIC 3. ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL PROBLEMS IN GERMANY, 1919-24
FINANCIAL In 1919, the Republic inherited serious debt. 1913-1919, debt had risen from 5 billion to 144 billion marks, partly because wartime
PROBLEMS IN governments had financed the war by borrowing and printing money, devaluating the German currency. This policy depended on victory
THE AFTERMATH
and extracting reparations from defeated nations.
OF THE WAR
The problem: Germany lost the opportunity to gain reparations and instead had to pay them. The loss of key industrial areas (lost 75%
iron and 26% coal) and the burden of reparations created a severe financial crisis. Governments 1919-23 worsened the situation…
EVENT DETAIL
TOPIC 1. IMPACT OF WAR, POLITICAL CRISES OF OCTOBER TO NOVEMBER 1918, AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE WEIMAR CONSTITUTION
• September 1918 – German army was on the brink of defeat. Ludendorff wanted to negotiate an armistice, but knew that Allies
(especially Wilson, guided by his 14 Points) would not negotiate with an autocratic monarch, so he advised for rapid political reforms to
make Germany appear more democratic and secure more lenient terms.
• October Reforms 'revolution from above' – Kaiser appointed Prince Max of Baden as Chancellor, who attempted to give the Reichstag
more power. However, this did not go far enough to satisfy the Allies…
• The Peace Note – Prince Max wrote to Wilson requesting an armistice based on the 14 Points. Wilson's response effectively demanded
German surrender and the Kaiser's abdication as a condition.
• Public reaction – News that Germany was on the brink of defeat shattered public morale. After years of wartime hardship and food
shortages, Germans felt betrayed and humiliated, fuelling revolutionary sentiment.
• Wilhelmshaven Mutiny (30th Oct) – At Germany's main naval base, sailors refused to sail for a final battle against Britain and mutinied
(seen as a pointless sacrifice for Kaiser's honour). This was the first open act of revolution - the navy had lost respect for the Kaiser.
• Kiel Mutiny (3rd Nov) – Mutiny spread to Kiel, where sailors seized control of the port and established workers' and soldiers' councils.
This marked the start of the November Revolution.
• Spread of revolution – Revolutionary councils seized control of major cities. On 8th Nov, a Bavarian Republic was declared in Munich.
THE KAISER'S By 9th Nov, the movement had reached Berlin.
ABDICATION • Abdication of the Kaiser – Threat of a general strike in Berlin led to collapse of the Kaiser's government on 9th Nov. Prince Max
announced the Kaiser's abdication to calm the unrest, then transferred the chancellorship to Ebert (unconstitutionally, as only Kaiser
could appoint one). General Groener confirmed the army would not fight for the Kaiser… he had little choice but to abdicate.
What were the key reasons for the Kaiser's abdication?
Military collapse forced Ludendorff to seek an armistice, but Wilson refused to negotiate with an autocratic monarch, making the Kaiser's
removal a condition of peace. The October Reforms came too late to satisfy the Allies, while the Kiel Mutiny sparked a November
Revolution that spread rapidly, showing the Kaiser had lost control. With public morale shattered by years of hardship and Groener
confirming the army would not fight for him, the Kaiser had lost all military, political, and popular support.
Was there a revolution?
Whether the 1918-19 'German Revolution' amounted to a revolution is debatable. The Kaiser had gone and parliamentary democracy
had been introduced. But there had been no social revolution. The civil service, judiciary and army all remained intact and there was no
major change in the structure of big business and land ownership.
• Pressure on Ebert from the Left – Councils (dominated by USPD & Spartacists) had led the revolution and expected to control key
decisions. On 22nd Nov, Ebert agreed the government would rule in the name of the Berlin councils (a temporary compromise).
However, many USPD leaders wanted the revolution to be pushed further (e.g. nationalise industry, democratise army/civil
service/judiciary, break up aristocratic estates).
• Pressure on Ebert from the Right – Army officers feared a Bolshevik-style revolution. The secret Ebert-Groener Pact (10th Nov) secured
THE STRUGGLE army support in return for resisting left-wing revolution and preserving the existing military structure - left saw this as betrayal.
FOR POWER
• Ebert suppresses the left (backed by the army) – Spartacist demonstration shot at, 16 killed (6 Dec); sailors' revolt crushed, three USPD
ministers resigned (23-24 Dec); Spartacist Uprising crushed after a week of fighting (6 Jan).
Was the pact successful? Only in the short term - prevented a communist takeover and stabilised the transition, but further fractured the
left, triggered uprisings, and by leaving the elites intact, kept in place the very forces that would later undermine Weimar.
THE WEIMAR How did the government function?
CONSTITUTION • President appointed Chancellor (needed ½ Reichstag support)
• Reichstag debated and approved laws, elected every 4 years.
• Reichsrat represented the 17 Länder, could advise or veto laws
• Elections: On 19th January 1919, Ebert organised elections for a Constituent Assembly to draft a new democratic constitution to
replace Bismarck's autocratic imperial system.
• Results: 80% of the electorate voted - SPD: 163, Z: 91, DDP: 75, DNVP: 44, USPD: 22, DVP: 19. Ebert became President, Scheidemann
Chancellor, and a coalition of SPD, Z, DDP emerged (75% of seats), all of which were committed to the republic & democracy.
• Constitution: In February 1919, the National Assembly met at Weimar (Berlin was unsafe due to Spartacist threat) to draft the new
constitution, which was passed in July by 262 votes to 75 (Nationalists and USPD opposed it).
Strengths of the Constitution
• Full democracy, equal voting rights, fundamental rights of citizens guaranteed, proportional representation represented all parties
fairly.
, Weaknesses of the Constitution
• Article 48 – Rule by presidential decree in emergencies, bypassing Reichstag/undermining democracy (Ebert used it 136 times)
• Tolerance of undemocratic institutions – Army, judiciary, civil service continued to wield power (anti-democratic, conservative)
• Strong presidential powers – Could appoint/dismiss chancellors, dissolve Reichstag, Supreme Commander of Armed Forces, A. 48
• Proportional representation – Led to proliferation of small parties, which fragmented Reichstag creating short-lived, unstable coalitions
TOPIC 2. THE IMPACT OF THE VERSAILLES SETTLEMENT ON GERMANY
● The German delegation was not allowed to participate in the discussions about the terms of the Treaty.
● Once the Allies had agreed on the terms, the German government was allowed to suggest only minor changes.
● The German government was given seven days to accept or reject the treaty - rejection would have led to a resumption of the
fighting, and the German army High Command advised that military resistance would be futile.
● Divisions in Germany over whether to sign the Treaty led to a political crisis and the fall of the Scheidemann government.
VERSAILLES Terms of the treaty… LAMBLON
PEACE
• 1) Territorial losses – Lost 13% of territory and 6M people, Alsace-Lorraine to France (national pride), Polish Corridor to Poland
SETTLEMENT
(separated East Prussia), Saarland under League control (industrial loss), all overseas colonies lost (loss of empire & world power status).
• 2) Disarmament – Army limited 100,000 men - no conscription, no tanks, no aircraft; Navy limited to 6 battleships, no submarines;
Rhineland demilitarised under Allied occupation.
• 3) Reparations – £6.6 billion (1921). Also lost merchant fleet, rail stock, patents.
• 4) Blame – 'War guilt clause' (Art. 231), forced Germany to accept full moral responsibility for causing all loss and damage during WWI.
• 5) Other terms – Excluded from the League of Nations, Anschluss (union with Austria) expressly forbidden.
The Treaty both united and divided German opinion. Most agreed that they had been burdened…
● Treaty was a humiliating 'diktat' at variance with Wilson's 14 Points (expected some leniency).
● The 'war guilt clause' was unfair because Germans had believed that they were fighting a just war.
● Reparations were too harsh and economically crippling (e.g. Keynes argued they were unworkable and politically unwise)
● They had been denied their right to national self-determination, while smaller nations (e.g. Poles, Czechs) had been respected.
Political divisions were made worse by the signing of the Treaty… while the republic was born in the shadow of defeat and humiliation:
Pro-republican parties (SPD, DDP, Z - who appeared weak and unpatriotic, undermining public confidence in democracy)…
● Had been forced to sign the Treaty, as Germany was too weak to resist.
● The policy of 'fulfilment', adopted as a pragmatic response, meant that Germany would outwardly comply with the terms of
the Treaty while trying to find ways to modify it or get around it.
Anti-republican parties (DVP, DNVP) and ex-soldiers who joined the Freikorps…
POLITICAL ● They believed the Treaty was another betrayal alongside the 1918 November Revolution and the armistice. Hindenburg and
IMPACT OF Lundendorff encouraged the 'stab-in-the-back' myth to hide their own blame, which claimed the war had not been lost due to
VERSAILLES
military defeat but as a result of the betrayal of 'unpatriotic forces' (pacifists, socialists, Jews - so-called 'November Criminals').
TREATY
● This drove many towards extremist, anti-republican groups committed to overthrowing the republic (e.g. Freikorps, DNVP).
Were German complaints justified?
● Wilson's Points already implied territorial loss & disarmament.
● Treaty less harsh than what France wanted (no Rhineland independence).
● Brest-Litovsk Treaty (1918): Germany had imposed harsher terms on Russia.
● Germany's own war aims (1914) were harsh - hypocrisy in complaint.
Reactions to the Treaty from abroad (Lloyd George, Wilson, Clemenceau)
• Britain – General satisfaction that Germany had been weakened, but had reservations about the Treaty's fairness and wisdom.
• USA – Widespread feeling that it was overly vindictive and self-serving - refused to join LoN, signed separate peace w/ Germany (1921).
• France – Widespread feeling that Germany had been treated too leniently and determination to strictly enforce the Treaty.
TOPIC 3. ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL PROBLEMS IN GERMANY, 1919-24
FINANCIAL In 1919, the Republic inherited serious debt. 1913-1919, debt had risen from 5 billion to 144 billion marks, partly because wartime
PROBLEMS IN governments had financed the war by borrowing and printing money, devaluating the German currency. This policy depended on victory
THE AFTERMATH
and extracting reparations from defeated nations.
OF THE WAR
The problem: Germany lost the opportunity to gain reparations and instead had to pay them. The loss of key industrial areas (lost 75%
iron and 26% coal) and the burden of reparations created a severe financial crisis. Governments 1919-23 worsened the situation…
