CCJ 3011 - Exam 3 With Questions And Answers Latest Update
2026
What is the central premise of labeling theory? - (answer)the formal and informal application of "labels"
In labeling theory, what does a relative lack of power lead to? - (answer)the differential application of
official stigmatizing labels
Are "labels" independent or dependent variables? - (answer)"labels" can be independent or dependent
variables, depending on the situation
What matters more: the criminal behavior that causes "labels" to be added, or the criminal behavior
that follows? - (answer)the criminal behavior that follows the addition of "labels" matters more
Who proposed the "looking-glass self" theory? - (answer)Cooly (1902)
What is the main idea of the looking-glass self theory? - (answer)self-image is created through social
interaction; identity is shaped through how we imagine other people perceive us
What did Mead (1934) posit, that expanded on the looking-glass self theory? - (answer)individuals
construct shared meanings and understandings, such as the self, when communicating with others
Who made the earliest statements that would ultimately become known as labeling theory? -
(answer)Tennenbaum (1938)
What is the "dramatization of evil"? - (answer)the process of applying stigma to youthful offenders
Who proposed primary and secondary deviance in labeling theory? - (answer)Lemert (1951)
What is primary deviance in labeling theory? - (answer)the initial act of deviance
,CCJ 3011 - Exam 3 With Questions And Answers Latest Update
2026
What is secondary deviance in labeling theory? - (answer)the responsive acts to the deviance
True or false:
In labeling theory, a primary deviance is a societal reaction, while a secondary deviance is an isolated
incident. - (answer)False
In labeling theory, a primary deviance is an isolated incident, while a secondary deviance is a societal
reaction.
Who conducted and wrote the study "Outsiders"? - (answer)Becker (1963)
What does labeling theory identify the differential application of official stigmatizing labels to be the
result of? - (answer)a relative lack of power
Does labeling increase or decrease the likelihood of secondary deviance? - (answer)labeling increases
the likelihood of secondary deviances
Does labeling increase or decrease the number of conventional opportunities for an individual? -
(answer)labeling decreases the number of conventional opportunities for an individual
What three elements mediate the relationship between labeling and secondary deviance? - (answer)-
Self-concept
- Reduced conventional opportunities
- Increased deviant peer associations
What do the characteristics of an individual impact the likelihood of? - (answer)criminal justice contact
and labeling
, CCJ 3011 - Exam 3 With Questions And Answers Latest Update
2026
Who provided empirical evidence for the claim "Labeling increases the likelihood of secondary
deviance"? - (answer)Chiricos, et al. (2007)
What did Chiricos, et al. (2007) study, and what were the primary findings? - (answer)- Studied men and
women from Florida to find the effects of formal adjudication on recidivism
- Found that formal adjudication (i.e., the labeling process) increased the likelihood of recidivism, even
after controlling for prior criminal records and other factors
Who provided empirical evidence for the claim "Labeling reduces conventional opportunities"? -
(answer)Widdowson, et al. (2016)
What did Widdowson, et al. (2016) study, and was were the primary findings? - (answer)- Studied how
high school arrests effected college opportunities
- Found that arrests during high school reduced the odds of enrollment in a 4-year college immediately
following high school
Who provided empirical evidence for the claim "The relationship between labeling and secondary
deviance is mediated by a deviant self-concept, reduced conventional opportunities, and increased
deviant peer associations"? - (answer)Bernburg and Krohn (2003)
What did Bernburg and Krohn (2003) study, and what were the primary findings? - (answer)- Studied the
effects of labeling on conventional opportunities
- Found mediating effects of reduced conventional opportunities on the relationship between formal
labeling and secondary deviance
Who provided empirical evidence for the claim "Individuals' characteristics impact the likelihood of
criminal justice contact and labeling"? - (answer)Kutateladze, et al. (2014)
2026
What is the central premise of labeling theory? - (answer)the formal and informal application of "labels"
In labeling theory, what does a relative lack of power lead to? - (answer)the differential application of
official stigmatizing labels
Are "labels" independent or dependent variables? - (answer)"labels" can be independent or dependent
variables, depending on the situation
What matters more: the criminal behavior that causes "labels" to be added, or the criminal behavior
that follows? - (answer)the criminal behavior that follows the addition of "labels" matters more
Who proposed the "looking-glass self" theory? - (answer)Cooly (1902)
What is the main idea of the looking-glass self theory? - (answer)self-image is created through social
interaction; identity is shaped through how we imagine other people perceive us
What did Mead (1934) posit, that expanded on the looking-glass self theory? - (answer)individuals
construct shared meanings and understandings, such as the self, when communicating with others
Who made the earliest statements that would ultimately become known as labeling theory? -
(answer)Tennenbaum (1938)
What is the "dramatization of evil"? - (answer)the process of applying stigma to youthful offenders
Who proposed primary and secondary deviance in labeling theory? - (answer)Lemert (1951)
What is primary deviance in labeling theory? - (answer)the initial act of deviance
,CCJ 3011 - Exam 3 With Questions And Answers Latest Update
2026
What is secondary deviance in labeling theory? - (answer)the responsive acts to the deviance
True or false:
In labeling theory, a primary deviance is a societal reaction, while a secondary deviance is an isolated
incident. - (answer)False
In labeling theory, a primary deviance is an isolated incident, while a secondary deviance is a societal
reaction.
Who conducted and wrote the study "Outsiders"? - (answer)Becker (1963)
What does labeling theory identify the differential application of official stigmatizing labels to be the
result of? - (answer)a relative lack of power
Does labeling increase or decrease the likelihood of secondary deviance? - (answer)labeling increases
the likelihood of secondary deviances
Does labeling increase or decrease the number of conventional opportunities for an individual? -
(answer)labeling decreases the number of conventional opportunities for an individual
What three elements mediate the relationship between labeling and secondary deviance? - (answer)-
Self-concept
- Reduced conventional opportunities
- Increased deviant peer associations
What do the characteristics of an individual impact the likelihood of? - (answer)criminal justice contact
and labeling
, CCJ 3011 - Exam 3 With Questions And Answers Latest Update
2026
Who provided empirical evidence for the claim "Labeling increases the likelihood of secondary
deviance"? - (answer)Chiricos, et al. (2007)
What did Chiricos, et al. (2007) study, and what were the primary findings? - (answer)- Studied men and
women from Florida to find the effects of formal adjudication on recidivism
- Found that formal adjudication (i.e., the labeling process) increased the likelihood of recidivism, even
after controlling for prior criminal records and other factors
Who provided empirical evidence for the claim "Labeling reduces conventional opportunities"? -
(answer)Widdowson, et al. (2016)
What did Widdowson, et al. (2016) study, and was were the primary findings? - (answer)- Studied how
high school arrests effected college opportunities
- Found that arrests during high school reduced the odds of enrollment in a 4-year college immediately
following high school
Who provided empirical evidence for the claim "The relationship between labeling and secondary
deviance is mediated by a deviant self-concept, reduced conventional opportunities, and increased
deviant peer associations"? - (answer)Bernburg and Krohn (2003)
What did Bernburg and Krohn (2003) study, and what were the primary findings? - (answer)- Studied the
effects of labeling on conventional opportunities
- Found mediating effects of reduced conventional opportunities on the relationship between formal
labeling and secondary deviance
Who provided empirical evidence for the claim "Individuals' characteristics impact the likelihood of
criminal justice contact and labeling"? - (answer)Kutateladze, et al. (2014)
