PUBH 6011 final exam QUESTIONS AND DETAILED ANSWER 2026
1. Two types of cell apoptosis: programmed cell death
death necrosis: cell damage and death
2. Virus vs bacteria virus: only active within host cells which they need to
reproduce
bacteria: single-celled organisms that produce own
energy and can reproduce on their own
3. DNA base pairing A-T
G-C
4. DNA strands held to- hydrogen bonds
gether by...
5. DNA to protein DNA encodes the sequence of proteins carried in
DNA
6. Gene DNA coding (for protein, for trait)
7. Protein functions structural support, storage, transport, cellular com-
munications, movement, and defense against foreign
substances
8. Protein sequence determines how protein will fold
9. Protein structure determines function
10. Enzyme enhances rate of chemical reaction in body; catalysts,
so not used up in reaction
11. Process of DNA to DNA > transcription > RNA > transcription > protein
protein
12. Genome all of an organism's genetic material
13. Epigenetics the study of influences on gene expression that occur
without a DNA change
determines which genes are expressed
, PUBH 6011 final exam QUESTIONS AND DETAILED ANSWER 2026
14. Epigenetics results heritable changes in the phenotype without changes
in to DNA sequence/structure (genotype)
15. Can epigenetic mod- YES
ifications be trans-
ferred from genera-
tion to generation?
16. Three mechanisms 1. DNA methylation
of epigenetics 2. histone modification
3. micro-RNAs
17. DNA methylation adding a methyl group to DNA to switch off the gene
possible connection between DNA methylation of 5
genes and PM 2.5
18. Histone protein molecule around which DNA is tightly coiled in
chromatin
19. Histone modifica- changes in the structure of histones that make it
tion more or less likely that a segment of DNA will be
transcribed
acetyl group allows for transcription
20. Epigenetic factor acetyl group; allows for transcription
that binds to histone
tail
21. Micro-RNAs bind to complementary RNA to prevent translation
22. Mutation heritable changes in genetic information
genotype change
23. Microlesions base pair substitution
24. 2 types of microle- change in DNA sequence
sions change in codon (if coding region)
, PUBH 6011 final exam QUESTIONS AND DETAILED ANSWER 2026
25. Change in codon - 3 no effect = degenerate code
outcomes missense mutation = change amino acid, sometimes
function
nonsense mutation = premature termination or splice
change
26. Types of genetic mu- microlesions
tations in lecture frameshift mutations
macro lesions
27. Types of genetic mu- 1. Deletion
tations 2. Duplication
3. Inversion
4. Insertion
5. Translocation
28. frameshift mutation mutation that shifts the "reading" frame of the genetic
message by inserting or deleting a nucleotide
consequences: altered protein, often non-functional
29. macrolesions chromosomal aberrations
change in chromosomal structure
change in chromosome number
30. Cause of chromoso- effects on mitotic machinery, not DNA
mal aberration
31. Macrolesion muta- deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation -- usual-
tion: change in chro- ly cell death
mosome structure
32. Macrolesion muta- aneuploidy: increase number of one+ chromosomes
tion: change in chro- polyploidy: increase in whole set
mosome number
33. Aneuploidy A chromosomal aberration in which one or more chro-
mosomes are present in extra copies or are deficient
in number.
, PUBH 6011 final exam QUESTIONS AND DETAILED ANSWERS 2026
34. Polyploidy condition in which an organism has extra sets of chro-
mosomes
35. polymorphism the individual differences of form among the members
of a species
can change function of proteins
36. Health effects of mu- germ cells/ova: point mutations may be lethal
tation somatic cells: source of variability (polymorphism);
concern = carcinogenesis
37. How does cancer DNA mutations in cells
arise? uncontrolled proliferation
38. Proto-oncogene mu- leads to altered forms of normal cellular genes
tation
39. tumor supressor mutation
gene can promote apoptosis
can act as "brake" to regulate proliferation of normal
cells
40. Genotoxic com- directly alter DNA
pounds point mutations
chromosomal aberrations
41. point mutation gene mutation in which a single base pair in DNA has
been changed
42. nongenotoxic com- do not directly alter DNA but can increase cancer risk
pound
increase chance of replication errors and increase
number of cells at risk
43. cancer types with women: lung, breast, colon
highest mortality in men: lung, prostate, colon
US
1. Two types of cell apoptosis: programmed cell death
death necrosis: cell damage and death
2. Virus vs bacteria virus: only active within host cells which they need to
reproduce
bacteria: single-celled organisms that produce own
energy and can reproduce on their own
3. DNA base pairing A-T
G-C
4. DNA strands held to- hydrogen bonds
gether by...
5. DNA to protein DNA encodes the sequence of proteins carried in
DNA
6. Gene DNA coding (for protein, for trait)
7. Protein functions structural support, storage, transport, cellular com-
munications, movement, and defense against foreign
substances
8. Protein sequence determines how protein will fold
9. Protein structure determines function
10. Enzyme enhances rate of chemical reaction in body; catalysts,
so not used up in reaction
11. Process of DNA to DNA > transcription > RNA > transcription > protein
protein
12. Genome all of an organism's genetic material
13. Epigenetics the study of influences on gene expression that occur
without a DNA change
determines which genes are expressed
, PUBH 6011 final exam QUESTIONS AND DETAILED ANSWER 2026
14. Epigenetics results heritable changes in the phenotype without changes
in to DNA sequence/structure (genotype)
15. Can epigenetic mod- YES
ifications be trans-
ferred from genera-
tion to generation?
16. Three mechanisms 1. DNA methylation
of epigenetics 2. histone modification
3. micro-RNAs
17. DNA methylation adding a methyl group to DNA to switch off the gene
possible connection between DNA methylation of 5
genes and PM 2.5
18. Histone protein molecule around which DNA is tightly coiled in
chromatin
19. Histone modifica- changes in the structure of histones that make it
tion more or less likely that a segment of DNA will be
transcribed
acetyl group allows for transcription
20. Epigenetic factor acetyl group; allows for transcription
that binds to histone
tail
21. Micro-RNAs bind to complementary RNA to prevent translation
22. Mutation heritable changes in genetic information
genotype change
23. Microlesions base pair substitution
24. 2 types of microle- change in DNA sequence
sions change in codon (if coding region)
, PUBH 6011 final exam QUESTIONS AND DETAILED ANSWER 2026
25. Change in codon - 3 no effect = degenerate code
outcomes missense mutation = change amino acid, sometimes
function
nonsense mutation = premature termination or splice
change
26. Types of genetic mu- microlesions
tations in lecture frameshift mutations
macro lesions
27. Types of genetic mu- 1. Deletion
tations 2. Duplication
3. Inversion
4. Insertion
5. Translocation
28. frameshift mutation mutation that shifts the "reading" frame of the genetic
message by inserting or deleting a nucleotide
consequences: altered protein, often non-functional
29. macrolesions chromosomal aberrations
change in chromosomal structure
change in chromosome number
30. Cause of chromoso- effects on mitotic machinery, not DNA
mal aberration
31. Macrolesion muta- deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation -- usual-
tion: change in chro- ly cell death
mosome structure
32. Macrolesion muta- aneuploidy: increase number of one+ chromosomes
tion: change in chro- polyploidy: increase in whole set
mosome number
33. Aneuploidy A chromosomal aberration in which one or more chro-
mosomes are present in extra copies or are deficient
in number.
, PUBH 6011 final exam QUESTIONS AND DETAILED ANSWERS 2026
34. Polyploidy condition in which an organism has extra sets of chro-
mosomes
35. polymorphism the individual differences of form among the members
of a species
can change function of proteins
36. Health effects of mu- germ cells/ova: point mutations may be lethal
tation somatic cells: source of variability (polymorphism);
concern = carcinogenesis
37. How does cancer DNA mutations in cells
arise? uncontrolled proliferation
38. Proto-oncogene mu- leads to altered forms of normal cellular genes
tation
39. tumor supressor mutation
gene can promote apoptosis
can act as "brake" to regulate proliferation of normal
cells
40. Genotoxic com- directly alter DNA
pounds point mutations
chromosomal aberrations
41. point mutation gene mutation in which a single base pair in DNA has
been changed
42. nongenotoxic com- do not directly alter DNA but can increase cancer risk
pound
increase chance of replication errors and increase
number of cells at risk
43. cancer types with women: lung, breast, colon
highest mortality in men: lung, prostate, colon
US
