PGY 451 EXAM 2 QUESTIONS ANSWERED CORRECTLY LATEST UPDATE 2026
Groups of neurons are called ____. - Answers Nuclei
Gray matter = _____. - Answers Cells/Neurons
What are the basic elements of neurons? - Answers Soma (cell body), Processes (axons and
dendrites), nucleus
Axons ____ information. - Answers Send
Dendrites ____ information. - Answers Recieve
What is the purpose of axons? - Answers The purpose of axons is to convey action potentials from
the cell body along the axon to wherever it goes and when the action potential reaches the end of the
axon it triggers the release of a chemical called a transmitter
What are tracts? - Answers Groups of axons interconnecting different parts of the brain
What does it mean to decussate? - Answers Tracts that cross from one side of the brain to the other
White matter = ____. - Answers Axons
What are some differences in neurons? - Answers -Size and shape of soma
-numbers and branching patterns of dendrites
-whether their axons are myelinated or not
-destination of axons
What is a synapse? - Answers is the functional junction between two neurons
How do neurons communicate in a cell and from one cell to another? - Answers Within a cell=
electrical (changes in membrane potential)
Cell to cell= chemical (synapse)
Describe an axosomatic synapse.. - Answers Presynaptic axon terminals synapse onto postsynaptic
cells soma/cell body. (axon to soma)
Describe an axodendritic synapse.. - Answers Presynaptic axon terminals synapse onto postsynaptic
cell's dendrites. (Axon to dendrites)
Describe an axo-axonic synapse.. - Answers Presynaptic axon terminals synapse onto postsynaptic
cell's axon. (Axon to axon)
Describe synaptic communication.. - Answers Inside the axon terminal there are "bubbles" of
transmitter. The transmitter is released at the synapse and diffuse across the synaptic cleft (the small
distance between the pre and post cell). There are receptor proteins on the post synaptic cell.
Transmitters bind to recepetor proteins causing a series of biochemical changes in the post synaptic
cell.
Superior.. - Answers Above
Inferior.. - Answers Below
Anterior.. - Answers Front
Posterior.. - Answers Back
Rostral.. - Answers Front
Cranial.. - Answers Above
Dorsal.. - Answers Back
Ventral.. - Answers Front
Lateral.. - Answers Further from the midline
Medial.. - Answers Closer to the midline
Caudal.. - Answers Below
What are the three dissection planes? describe them. - Answers Frontal/coronal: divides person into
anterior and posterior portions.
Transverse/horizontal: divides person into superior and inferior portions.
Midsagittal: divides a person into left and right halves.
What is the central nervous system composed of? - Answers The brain and spinal cord.
What is the cerebral hemisphere composed of? - Answers The cerebral cortex and subcortical
structures
What are the four lobes of the cerebral cortex? - Answers Frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal
What are gyri? - Answers Surface folding
What are sulci? - Answers Deep infoldings
Describe cytoarhiteconics.. - Answers Areas with different structures were given different numbers
What is a subcortical structure? List a few.. - Answers Subcortical: cant see on the surface, must do a
dissection to see under the cortex.
, Examples: basal ganglia, diencephalon, midbrain, pons, medulla
What are the two components of the diencephalon? - Answers Thalamus and hypothalamus
What makes up the brain stem? - Answers Midbrain, pons, and medulla. sometimes the cerebellum
and thalamus.
The function of the spinal cord is.. - Answers Sends motor control signals and receives sensory
information.
What are the four divisions of the spinal cord? - Answers Cervical, throacic,lumbar and sacral.
Describe afferent.. - Answers Afferent/sensory: dorsally located, sends information into the brain.
Describe efferent.. - Answers Efferent/motor: ventrally located, sends information to the muscles.
What is the cornea? - Answers Transparent cover of the front of the eye
What is the sclera? - Answers White cover over the rest of the eyeball
What is the iris? - Answers Muscle that contracts or relaxes to control the amount of light entering
the eye
What is the lens? - Answers Located behind the iris, focuses light on the retina. Flexible, can change
shape to help focus near and far objects.
What is the choroid? - Answers Layer of blood vessels between the retina and sclera
What is the conjunctive? - Answers Membrane covering sclera
What is conjunctivitis? - Answers Infection of the conjunctive, pink eye.
What is the retina? - Answers Visual nerons
What is the optic nerve? - Answers Axons leaving the retina
Describe presbyopia.. - Answers Loss of flexibility of the lens which produces difficulty in focusing on
close objects. Generally occurs around age 45. (Reading glasses)
Describe cataracts.. - Answers The lens becomes opaque and cloudy. Generally in ages 60+. Corrected
by surgical removal and replacement with an artificial lens, IOL (intraocular lens).
What are the two chambers the interior of the eye divided into? and describe the chambers.. -
Answers These chambers are fluid filled, maintain shape and have intraocular pressure. The purpose
of the fluid is to maintain the spherical shape of the eye. There is the anterior chamber/ aqueous
humor and the posterior chamber/vitreous humor.
Describe glaucoma.. - Answers A condition where there is an increase in intraocular pressure. This
increased pressure can result in damage of the optic nerve and loss of vision. May be treated
medically and surgically.
How is the visual field organized? - Answers A vertical meridian and horizontal meridian. It extends
upward 40deg, downward 60deg and out 90deg to both sides.
The unit of measure for the visual field is ? - Answers Degrees of visual angle. If you held a dime at
arms length that dime would cover about one deg of the visual field.
Describe binocular vs monocular vision.. - Answers 60deg seen by both eyes and 60-90deg seen by
only one eye in their respective crescent.
What are ganglion cells? - Answers "Output" cells. Their axons take signals into the brain via the optic
nerve.
Define contralateral.. - Answers Opposite sides
Define ipsilateral.. - Answers Same sides
Describe the visual pathway.. - Answers Ganglion cells send their axons out of the eyeball and into
the brain by way of bundles of axons called the optic nerves. The two optic nerves join at the optic
chiasm. At the optic chiasm the axons from the nasal retinas cross the midline, while axons from the
temporal retinas remain ipsilateral. Central to the optic chiasm the rearranged fibers form the optic
tracts. They continue into the brain to the thalamus (diencephalon), specifically the lateral geniculate
nucleus. Cells in the lateral geniculate nucleus sends axons to the visual cortex.
Area 17 is? - Answers Primary visual cortex
What is the optic chiasm? - Answers Where the nasal retina axons cross
What are the optic tracts? - Answers The rearranged axons
What is the lateral geniculate nucleus? - Answers Located in the thalamus of the diencephalon. It is a
subcortical structure
Describe depolarized.. - Answers If a cell is more positive on the inside it is depolarized and will
release more transmitters
Describe hyperpolarized.. - Answers If a cell is more negative compared to the outside it is
hyperpolarized and will release less transmitters
Groups of neurons are called ____. - Answers Nuclei
Gray matter = _____. - Answers Cells/Neurons
What are the basic elements of neurons? - Answers Soma (cell body), Processes (axons and
dendrites), nucleus
Axons ____ information. - Answers Send
Dendrites ____ information. - Answers Recieve
What is the purpose of axons? - Answers The purpose of axons is to convey action potentials from
the cell body along the axon to wherever it goes and when the action potential reaches the end of the
axon it triggers the release of a chemical called a transmitter
What are tracts? - Answers Groups of axons interconnecting different parts of the brain
What does it mean to decussate? - Answers Tracts that cross from one side of the brain to the other
White matter = ____. - Answers Axons
What are some differences in neurons? - Answers -Size and shape of soma
-numbers and branching patterns of dendrites
-whether their axons are myelinated or not
-destination of axons
What is a synapse? - Answers is the functional junction between two neurons
How do neurons communicate in a cell and from one cell to another? - Answers Within a cell=
electrical (changes in membrane potential)
Cell to cell= chemical (synapse)
Describe an axosomatic synapse.. - Answers Presynaptic axon terminals synapse onto postsynaptic
cells soma/cell body. (axon to soma)
Describe an axodendritic synapse.. - Answers Presynaptic axon terminals synapse onto postsynaptic
cell's dendrites. (Axon to dendrites)
Describe an axo-axonic synapse.. - Answers Presynaptic axon terminals synapse onto postsynaptic
cell's axon. (Axon to axon)
Describe synaptic communication.. - Answers Inside the axon terminal there are "bubbles" of
transmitter. The transmitter is released at the synapse and diffuse across the synaptic cleft (the small
distance between the pre and post cell). There are receptor proteins on the post synaptic cell.
Transmitters bind to recepetor proteins causing a series of biochemical changes in the post synaptic
cell.
Superior.. - Answers Above
Inferior.. - Answers Below
Anterior.. - Answers Front
Posterior.. - Answers Back
Rostral.. - Answers Front
Cranial.. - Answers Above
Dorsal.. - Answers Back
Ventral.. - Answers Front
Lateral.. - Answers Further from the midline
Medial.. - Answers Closer to the midline
Caudal.. - Answers Below
What are the three dissection planes? describe them. - Answers Frontal/coronal: divides person into
anterior and posterior portions.
Transverse/horizontal: divides person into superior and inferior portions.
Midsagittal: divides a person into left and right halves.
What is the central nervous system composed of? - Answers The brain and spinal cord.
What is the cerebral hemisphere composed of? - Answers The cerebral cortex and subcortical
structures
What are the four lobes of the cerebral cortex? - Answers Frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal
What are gyri? - Answers Surface folding
What are sulci? - Answers Deep infoldings
Describe cytoarhiteconics.. - Answers Areas with different structures were given different numbers
What is a subcortical structure? List a few.. - Answers Subcortical: cant see on the surface, must do a
dissection to see under the cortex.
, Examples: basal ganglia, diencephalon, midbrain, pons, medulla
What are the two components of the diencephalon? - Answers Thalamus and hypothalamus
What makes up the brain stem? - Answers Midbrain, pons, and medulla. sometimes the cerebellum
and thalamus.
The function of the spinal cord is.. - Answers Sends motor control signals and receives sensory
information.
What are the four divisions of the spinal cord? - Answers Cervical, throacic,lumbar and sacral.
Describe afferent.. - Answers Afferent/sensory: dorsally located, sends information into the brain.
Describe efferent.. - Answers Efferent/motor: ventrally located, sends information to the muscles.
What is the cornea? - Answers Transparent cover of the front of the eye
What is the sclera? - Answers White cover over the rest of the eyeball
What is the iris? - Answers Muscle that contracts or relaxes to control the amount of light entering
the eye
What is the lens? - Answers Located behind the iris, focuses light on the retina. Flexible, can change
shape to help focus near and far objects.
What is the choroid? - Answers Layer of blood vessels between the retina and sclera
What is the conjunctive? - Answers Membrane covering sclera
What is conjunctivitis? - Answers Infection of the conjunctive, pink eye.
What is the retina? - Answers Visual nerons
What is the optic nerve? - Answers Axons leaving the retina
Describe presbyopia.. - Answers Loss of flexibility of the lens which produces difficulty in focusing on
close objects. Generally occurs around age 45. (Reading glasses)
Describe cataracts.. - Answers The lens becomes opaque and cloudy. Generally in ages 60+. Corrected
by surgical removal and replacement with an artificial lens, IOL (intraocular lens).
What are the two chambers the interior of the eye divided into? and describe the chambers.. -
Answers These chambers are fluid filled, maintain shape and have intraocular pressure. The purpose
of the fluid is to maintain the spherical shape of the eye. There is the anterior chamber/ aqueous
humor and the posterior chamber/vitreous humor.
Describe glaucoma.. - Answers A condition where there is an increase in intraocular pressure. This
increased pressure can result in damage of the optic nerve and loss of vision. May be treated
medically and surgically.
How is the visual field organized? - Answers A vertical meridian and horizontal meridian. It extends
upward 40deg, downward 60deg and out 90deg to both sides.
The unit of measure for the visual field is ? - Answers Degrees of visual angle. If you held a dime at
arms length that dime would cover about one deg of the visual field.
Describe binocular vs monocular vision.. - Answers 60deg seen by both eyes and 60-90deg seen by
only one eye in their respective crescent.
What are ganglion cells? - Answers "Output" cells. Their axons take signals into the brain via the optic
nerve.
Define contralateral.. - Answers Opposite sides
Define ipsilateral.. - Answers Same sides
Describe the visual pathway.. - Answers Ganglion cells send their axons out of the eyeball and into
the brain by way of bundles of axons called the optic nerves. The two optic nerves join at the optic
chiasm. At the optic chiasm the axons from the nasal retinas cross the midline, while axons from the
temporal retinas remain ipsilateral. Central to the optic chiasm the rearranged fibers form the optic
tracts. They continue into the brain to the thalamus (diencephalon), specifically the lateral geniculate
nucleus. Cells in the lateral geniculate nucleus sends axons to the visual cortex.
Area 17 is? - Answers Primary visual cortex
What is the optic chiasm? - Answers Where the nasal retina axons cross
What are the optic tracts? - Answers The rearranged axons
What is the lateral geniculate nucleus? - Answers Located in the thalamus of the diencephalon. It is a
subcortical structure
Describe depolarized.. - Answers If a cell is more positive on the inside it is depolarized and will
release more transmitters
Describe hyperpolarized.. - Answers If a cell is more negative compared to the outside it is
hyperpolarized and will release less transmitters
