HCR 240 Final Actual Exam Questions
And Answers Practice Questions with
Solutions Newest | Already Graded A+
Outcome of severe or prolonged cell injury -
ANSWER//it becomes irreversible and leads to cell death
Outcome of mild or short-term cell injury - ANSWER//it
can be reversible What is the fundamental definition of
hypoxic injury? - ANSWER//Hypoxic injury occurs
when a cell does not receive sufficient oxygen to
maintain its normal functions. Why is oxygen critical for
cellular survival? - ANSWER//Oxygen is required to
produce ATP, which serves as the primary energy source
for the cell's metabolic processes, including the operation
of ion pumps. What is the sequence of events leading
from low oxygen to cell death? - ANSWER//Low
oxygen leads to low ATP, which causes the sodium-
potassium pump to fail. Sodium accumulates inside the
cell, drawing water in via osmosis, resulting in cell
swelling, dysfunction, and eventually cell death if the
condition persists. What are common clinical causes of
hypoxic injury? - ANSWER//Common causes include
heart attack, stroke, anemia, shock, respiratory failure,
and carbon monoxide poisoning. Which organs are most
susceptible to hypoxic injury and why? - ANSWER//The
brain, heart, and kidneys are most susceptible because
they have high metabolic demands and require a constant,
significant supply of oxygen. Free radicals -
ANSWER//Unstable molecules that damage cell
membranes, proteins, and DNA. Causes of free radicals -
ANSWER//Radiation, inflammation, toxic chemicals,
,reperfusion injury, aging, smoking. Reperfusion injury -
ANSWER//After blood flow returns to an injured area,
oxygen can suddenly create free radicals. What do free
radicals damage? - ANSWER//Cell membranes, proteins,
and DNA. What is the result of oxygen returning to an
injured area? - ANSWER//Reperfusion injury. Chemical
Injury - ANSWER//Toxins, drugs, alcohol, poisons, and
pollutants can directly damage cells. Examples of
chemical injury - ANSWER//Alcohol damages liver cells.
Carbon monoxide blocks oxygen delivery. Some
medications can damage kidneys or liver if toxic.
Infectious Injury - ANSWER//Bacteria, viruses, fungi,
and parasites can damage cells directly or trigger
inflammation that damages tissue. Immunologic Injury -
ANSWER//The immune system can harm the body when
it attacks self-tissue or overreacts. Examples of
immunologic injury - ANSWER//Autoimmune disease,
allergies, transplant rejection. Nutritional Injury -
ANSWER//Too little or too much nutrition can injure
cells. Examples of nutritional injury - ANSWER//Protein
deficiency, vitamin deficiency, obesity, high cholesterol.
Genetic Injury - ANSWER//Inherited defects can cause
abnormal proteins, enzyme problems, or abnormal cell
development. Examples of genetic injury -
ANSWER//Sickle cell anemia, cystic fibrosis, Down
syndrome. Necrosis - ANSWER//Uncontrolled cell death
that usually causes inflammation. Coagulative Necrosis -
ANSWER//Cells die, but the tissue structure stays
somewhat intact for a while. Cause of Coagulative
Necrosis - ANSWER//Usually caused by ischemia,
meaning lack of blood flow. Organs commonly affected
by Coagulative Necrosis - ANSWER//Heart, kidneys,
spleen. Liquefactive Necrosis - ANSWER//Dead tissue
,becomes liquid-like. Common locations for Liquefactive
Necrosis - ANSWER//Brain tissue and abscesses.
Caseous Necrosis - ANSWER//Cheese-like appearance.
Condition commonly associated with Caseous Necrosis -
ANSWER//Tuberculosis. Fat Necrosis - ANSWER//Fat
tissue is destroyed, often by enzymes. Common causes of
Fat Necrosis - ANSWER//Pancreatitis or breast trauma.
Gangrenous Necrosis - ANSWER//Usually caused by
loss of blood supply to a large area. Types of Gangrene -
ANSWER//Dry gangrene: tissue becomes dry, black,
shriveled. Wet gangrene: tissue is infected, swollen, foul-
smelling. Gas gangrene: caused by bacteria that produce
gas in tissue. Normal sodium - ANSWER//about 135-145
mEq/L Hyponatremia - ANSWER//low sodium, usually
less than 135 What is the main idea of hyponatremia? -
ANSWER//Low sodium makes water move into cells,
causing cells to swell. Brain swelling causes neurological
symptoms. Hypernatremia - ANSWER//high sodium,
usually greater than 145 What is the main idea of
hypernatremia? - ANSWER//High sodium pulls water
out of cells, causing cell shrinkage. Normal potassium -
ANSWER//about 3.5-5.0 mEq/L Hypokalemia -
ANSWER//low potassium Hypokalemia ECG clue -
ANSWER//Flattened T waves, U waves Hyperkalemia -
ANSWER//high potassium Hyperkalemia ECG clue -
ANSWER//Tall peaked T waves, widened QRS Normal
calcium - ANSWER//about 8.5-10.5 mg/dL Chvostek
sign - ANSWER//facial twitching when facial nerve
tapped Trousseau sign - ANSWER//carpal spasm when
BP cuff inflated Hypercalcemia clinical manifestations -
ANSWER//Bones, stones, groans, psychiatric overtones
Hypomagnesemia high-yield - ANSWER//Low
magnesium can make hypokalemia hard to fix
, Hypermagnesemia causes - ANSWER//Usually caused
by kidney failure or too much magnesium-containing
medications What does sodium control? -
ANSWER//water balance, nerve impulses, and muscle
function What is potassium essential for? -
ANSWER//cardiac and muscle function What does
calcium affect? - ANSWER//bones, muscle contraction,
nerve function, blood clotting, and cardiac function What
does magnesium affect? - ANSWER//neuromuscular
function and potassium balance Hypermagnesemia
clinical manifestations - ANSWER//Muscle weakness,
decreased reflexes, low blood pressure, respiratory
depression, cardiac arrest What is the normal pH range
for arterial blood? - ANSWER//7.35-7.45 What is the
normal range for PaCO₂? - ANSWER//35-45 mmHg
What is the normal range for HCO₃⁻? - ANSWER//22-26
mEq/L In ABG analysis, which system is associated with
CO₂? - ANSWER//The respiratory system In ABG
analysis, which system is associated with HCO₃⁻? -
ANSWER//The metabolic system What does a pH below
7.35 indicate? - ANSWER//Acidosis What does a pH
above 7.45 indicate? - ANSWER//Alkalosis What is the
primary cause of respiratory acidosis? -
ANSWER//Hypoventilation (not breathing off enough
CO₂) List three clinical causes of respiratory acidosis. -
ANSWER//COPD, airway obstruction, and opioid
overdose. What is the primary cause of respiratory
alkalosis? - ANSWER//Hyperventilation (breathing off
too much CO₂) List three clinical causes of respiratory
alkalosis. - ANSWER//Anxiety, fever, and high altitude.
What is the ABG pattern for metabolic acidosis? -
ANSWER//Low pH and low HCO₃⁻ What are Kussmaul
respirations and in what condition are they typically seen?
And Answers Practice Questions with
Solutions Newest | Already Graded A+
Outcome of severe or prolonged cell injury -
ANSWER//it becomes irreversible and leads to cell death
Outcome of mild or short-term cell injury - ANSWER//it
can be reversible What is the fundamental definition of
hypoxic injury? - ANSWER//Hypoxic injury occurs
when a cell does not receive sufficient oxygen to
maintain its normal functions. Why is oxygen critical for
cellular survival? - ANSWER//Oxygen is required to
produce ATP, which serves as the primary energy source
for the cell's metabolic processes, including the operation
of ion pumps. What is the sequence of events leading
from low oxygen to cell death? - ANSWER//Low
oxygen leads to low ATP, which causes the sodium-
potassium pump to fail. Sodium accumulates inside the
cell, drawing water in via osmosis, resulting in cell
swelling, dysfunction, and eventually cell death if the
condition persists. What are common clinical causes of
hypoxic injury? - ANSWER//Common causes include
heart attack, stroke, anemia, shock, respiratory failure,
and carbon monoxide poisoning. Which organs are most
susceptible to hypoxic injury and why? - ANSWER//The
brain, heart, and kidneys are most susceptible because
they have high metabolic demands and require a constant,
significant supply of oxygen. Free radicals -
ANSWER//Unstable molecules that damage cell
membranes, proteins, and DNA. Causes of free radicals -
ANSWER//Radiation, inflammation, toxic chemicals,
,reperfusion injury, aging, smoking. Reperfusion injury -
ANSWER//After blood flow returns to an injured area,
oxygen can suddenly create free radicals. What do free
radicals damage? - ANSWER//Cell membranes, proteins,
and DNA. What is the result of oxygen returning to an
injured area? - ANSWER//Reperfusion injury. Chemical
Injury - ANSWER//Toxins, drugs, alcohol, poisons, and
pollutants can directly damage cells. Examples of
chemical injury - ANSWER//Alcohol damages liver cells.
Carbon monoxide blocks oxygen delivery. Some
medications can damage kidneys or liver if toxic.
Infectious Injury - ANSWER//Bacteria, viruses, fungi,
and parasites can damage cells directly or trigger
inflammation that damages tissue. Immunologic Injury -
ANSWER//The immune system can harm the body when
it attacks self-tissue or overreacts. Examples of
immunologic injury - ANSWER//Autoimmune disease,
allergies, transplant rejection. Nutritional Injury -
ANSWER//Too little or too much nutrition can injure
cells. Examples of nutritional injury - ANSWER//Protein
deficiency, vitamin deficiency, obesity, high cholesterol.
Genetic Injury - ANSWER//Inherited defects can cause
abnormal proteins, enzyme problems, or abnormal cell
development. Examples of genetic injury -
ANSWER//Sickle cell anemia, cystic fibrosis, Down
syndrome. Necrosis - ANSWER//Uncontrolled cell death
that usually causes inflammation. Coagulative Necrosis -
ANSWER//Cells die, but the tissue structure stays
somewhat intact for a while. Cause of Coagulative
Necrosis - ANSWER//Usually caused by ischemia,
meaning lack of blood flow. Organs commonly affected
by Coagulative Necrosis - ANSWER//Heart, kidneys,
spleen. Liquefactive Necrosis - ANSWER//Dead tissue
,becomes liquid-like. Common locations for Liquefactive
Necrosis - ANSWER//Brain tissue and abscesses.
Caseous Necrosis - ANSWER//Cheese-like appearance.
Condition commonly associated with Caseous Necrosis -
ANSWER//Tuberculosis. Fat Necrosis - ANSWER//Fat
tissue is destroyed, often by enzymes. Common causes of
Fat Necrosis - ANSWER//Pancreatitis or breast trauma.
Gangrenous Necrosis - ANSWER//Usually caused by
loss of blood supply to a large area. Types of Gangrene -
ANSWER//Dry gangrene: tissue becomes dry, black,
shriveled. Wet gangrene: tissue is infected, swollen, foul-
smelling. Gas gangrene: caused by bacteria that produce
gas in tissue. Normal sodium - ANSWER//about 135-145
mEq/L Hyponatremia - ANSWER//low sodium, usually
less than 135 What is the main idea of hyponatremia? -
ANSWER//Low sodium makes water move into cells,
causing cells to swell. Brain swelling causes neurological
symptoms. Hypernatremia - ANSWER//high sodium,
usually greater than 145 What is the main idea of
hypernatremia? - ANSWER//High sodium pulls water
out of cells, causing cell shrinkage. Normal potassium -
ANSWER//about 3.5-5.0 mEq/L Hypokalemia -
ANSWER//low potassium Hypokalemia ECG clue -
ANSWER//Flattened T waves, U waves Hyperkalemia -
ANSWER//high potassium Hyperkalemia ECG clue -
ANSWER//Tall peaked T waves, widened QRS Normal
calcium - ANSWER//about 8.5-10.5 mg/dL Chvostek
sign - ANSWER//facial twitching when facial nerve
tapped Trousseau sign - ANSWER//carpal spasm when
BP cuff inflated Hypercalcemia clinical manifestations -
ANSWER//Bones, stones, groans, psychiatric overtones
Hypomagnesemia high-yield - ANSWER//Low
magnesium can make hypokalemia hard to fix
, Hypermagnesemia causes - ANSWER//Usually caused
by kidney failure or too much magnesium-containing
medications What does sodium control? -
ANSWER//water balance, nerve impulses, and muscle
function What is potassium essential for? -
ANSWER//cardiac and muscle function What does
calcium affect? - ANSWER//bones, muscle contraction,
nerve function, blood clotting, and cardiac function What
does magnesium affect? - ANSWER//neuromuscular
function and potassium balance Hypermagnesemia
clinical manifestations - ANSWER//Muscle weakness,
decreased reflexes, low blood pressure, respiratory
depression, cardiac arrest What is the normal pH range
for arterial blood? - ANSWER//7.35-7.45 What is the
normal range for PaCO₂? - ANSWER//35-45 mmHg
What is the normal range for HCO₃⁻? - ANSWER//22-26
mEq/L In ABG analysis, which system is associated with
CO₂? - ANSWER//The respiratory system In ABG
analysis, which system is associated with HCO₃⁻? -
ANSWER//The metabolic system What does a pH below
7.35 indicate? - ANSWER//Acidosis What does a pH
above 7.45 indicate? - ANSWER//Alkalosis What is the
primary cause of respiratory acidosis? -
ANSWER//Hypoventilation (not breathing off enough
CO₂) List three clinical causes of respiratory acidosis. -
ANSWER//COPD, airway obstruction, and opioid
overdose. What is the primary cause of respiratory
alkalosis? - ANSWER//Hyperventilation (breathing off
too much CO₂) List three clinical causes of respiratory
alkalosis. - ANSWER//Anxiety, fever, and high altitude.
What is the ABG pattern for metabolic acidosis? -
ANSWER//Low pH and low HCO₃⁻ What are Kussmaul
respirations and in what condition are they typically seen?
