Public Policy in Action
Perspectives on the policy process
Version 1.0
Victor Bekkers
Menno Fenger
Peter Scholten
,1 POLITICS AND POLICIES IN A CHANGING WORLD 5
1.1 INTRODUCTION 5
1.2 POLITICS, POLICIES AND GOVERNANCE 7
1.3 A VARIETY OF POLICY PROGRAMS 18
1.4 POLICY MAKING IN A CHANGING WORLD 20
1.5 OUTLOOK OF THIS BOOK 37
2 FOUR PERSPECTIVES ON THE POLICY PROCESS 40
2.1 INTRODUCTION 40
2.2 COMPARING POLICY PERSPECTIVES: AN ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK 41
2.3 THE RATIONAL PERSPECTIVE ON PUBLIC POLICY 45
2.4 THE POLITICAL PERSPECTIVE ON PUBLIC POLICY 51
2.5 THE CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE ON PUBLIC POLICY 58
2.6 THE INSTITUTIONAL PERSPECTIVE ON PUBLIC POLICY 65
2.7 CONCLUSION 73
3 POLICY PROBLEMS AND AGENDA SETTING 77
3.1 INTRODUCTION 77
3.2 TYPES OF POLICY PROBLEMS 78
3.3 SOCIAL CLASSIFICATION OF TARGET GROUPS 86
3.4 TYPES OF AGENDAS 89
3.5 RATIONAL PERSPECTIVE; THE ‘DISCOVERY’ OF PROBLEMS 92
3.6 CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE; THE ‘FRAMING’ OF PROBLEMS 96
3.7 POLITICAL PERSPECTIVE: ADVOCACY COALITIONS AND MULTIPLE STREAMS 98
3.8 MULTIPLE STREAMS APPROACHINSTITUTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE: NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE FEEDBACK 100
3.9 CONCLUSION 105
4 POLICY FORMULATION: DEVELOPMENT, STEERING, INSTRUMENTS AND DECISION-MAKING 107
4.1 INTRODUCTION 107
4.2 THE RATIONAL PERSPECTIVE ON POLICY DEVELOPMENT: THE EVIDENCE BASED PROGRAMMING OF GOALS AND
ACTIONS 108
,4.3 THE POLITICAL PERSPECTIVE ON POLICY DESIGN: MANAGING INTERESTS, POWER AND INTERDEPENDENCY 113
4.4 THE CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE: DEVELOPING APPEALING FRAMES 118
4.5 THE INSTITUTIONAL PERSPECTIVE: PLAYING WITH DIFFERENT DESIGN LOGICS 120
4.6 POLICY DEVELOPMENT AS THE DEVELOPMENT OF DIFFERENT STEERING ARRANGEMENTS 123
4.7 OPENING PANDORA’S BOX: THE TOOLS OF GOVERNMENT 131
4.8 DECISION-MAKING 139
4.9 CONCLUSION 148
5 POLICY IMPLEMENTATION 151
5.1 THE FOUNDATIONS OF POLICY IMPLEMENTATION RESEARCH 151
5.2 POLICY IMPLEMENTATION FROM A MANAGEMENT AND ORGANIZATIONAL PERSPECTIVE 158
5.3 CHARACTERISTICS AND CHANGES IN IMPLEMENTING BUREAUCRACIES 163
5.4 CHAIN APPROACHES IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF POLICY 169
5.5 SERVICE AS ASPECT OF THE IMPLEMENTATION 173
5.6 MONITORING, SUPERVISION AND ENFORCEMENT 177
5.7 CONCLUSION 185
6 EVALUATING PUBLIC POLICY 187
6.1 TYPES OF EVALUATION 189
6.2 EVALUATION CRITERIA 192
6.3 DESIGNING POLICY EVALUATION 196
6.4 UTILIZATION OF EVALUATION STUDIES 207
6.5 EVALUATION AS A FORM OF ACCOUNTABILITY 211
6.6 CONCLUSION 214
7 POLICY DYNAMICS: LEARNING, CHANGE AND INNOVATION 216
7.1 INTRODUCTION 216
7.2 CONCEPTUALIZING POLICY DYNAMICS AND POLICY LEARNING 217
7.3 RATIONAL PERSPECTIVE; LEANING AS THE MOTOR OF POLICY CHANGE 224
7.4 POLITICAL PERSPECTIVE; BETWEEN POWERING AND PUZZLING 229
7.5 CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE; EPISTEMIC COMMUNITIES, DISCOURSES AND CRITICAL FRAME REFLECTION 234
7.6 INSTITUTIONAL PERSPECTIVE: INSTITUTIONAL PATH DEPENDENCY AND PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM 241
, 7.7 POLICY INNOVATION 245
7.8 CONCLUSION: TOWARDS A SYNTHESIS 253
8 THE REFLECTIVE POLICY MAKER 256
8.1 INTRODUCTION 256
8.2 LEGITIMACY: THE INVISIBLE HAND IN POLICY MAKING 258
8.3 LEGITIMACY: A SYSTEM ANALYSIS 264
8.4 OPERATING IN DIFFERENT WORLD: INSIDE AND OUTSIDE 270
8.5 CONTESTED KNOWLEDGE 272
8.6 INTEGRITY AND RESPONSIBILITY 275
8.7 TOWARDS A REFLECTIVE POLICY PRACTICE 276
REFERENCES 279
Perspectives on the policy process
Version 1.0
Victor Bekkers
Menno Fenger
Peter Scholten
,1 POLITICS AND POLICIES IN A CHANGING WORLD 5
1.1 INTRODUCTION 5
1.2 POLITICS, POLICIES AND GOVERNANCE 7
1.3 A VARIETY OF POLICY PROGRAMS 18
1.4 POLICY MAKING IN A CHANGING WORLD 20
1.5 OUTLOOK OF THIS BOOK 37
2 FOUR PERSPECTIVES ON THE POLICY PROCESS 40
2.1 INTRODUCTION 40
2.2 COMPARING POLICY PERSPECTIVES: AN ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK 41
2.3 THE RATIONAL PERSPECTIVE ON PUBLIC POLICY 45
2.4 THE POLITICAL PERSPECTIVE ON PUBLIC POLICY 51
2.5 THE CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE ON PUBLIC POLICY 58
2.6 THE INSTITUTIONAL PERSPECTIVE ON PUBLIC POLICY 65
2.7 CONCLUSION 73
3 POLICY PROBLEMS AND AGENDA SETTING 77
3.1 INTRODUCTION 77
3.2 TYPES OF POLICY PROBLEMS 78
3.3 SOCIAL CLASSIFICATION OF TARGET GROUPS 86
3.4 TYPES OF AGENDAS 89
3.5 RATIONAL PERSPECTIVE; THE ‘DISCOVERY’ OF PROBLEMS 92
3.6 CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE; THE ‘FRAMING’ OF PROBLEMS 96
3.7 POLITICAL PERSPECTIVE: ADVOCACY COALITIONS AND MULTIPLE STREAMS 98
3.8 MULTIPLE STREAMS APPROACHINSTITUTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE: NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE FEEDBACK 100
3.9 CONCLUSION 105
4 POLICY FORMULATION: DEVELOPMENT, STEERING, INSTRUMENTS AND DECISION-MAKING 107
4.1 INTRODUCTION 107
4.2 THE RATIONAL PERSPECTIVE ON POLICY DEVELOPMENT: THE EVIDENCE BASED PROGRAMMING OF GOALS AND
ACTIONS 108
,4.3 THE POLITICAL PERSPECTIVE ON POLICY DESIGN: MANAGING INTERESTS, POWER AND INTERDEPENDENCY 113
4.4 THE CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE: DEVELOPING APPEALING FRAMES 118
4.5 THE INSTITUTIONAL PERSPECTIVE: PLAYING WITH DIFFERENT DESIGN LOGICS 120
4.6 POLICY DEVELOPMENT AS THE DEVELOPMENT OF DIFFERENT STEERING ARRANGEMENTS 123
4.7 OPENING PANDORA’S BOX: THE TOOLS OF GOVERNMENT 131
4.8 DECISION-MAKING 139
4.9 CONCLUSION 148
5 POLICY IMPLEMENTATION 151
5.1 THE FOUNDATIONS OF POLICY IMPLEMENTATION RESEARCH 151
5.2 POLICY IMPLEMENTATION FROM A MANAGEMENT AND ORGANIZATIONAL PERSPECTIVE 158
5.3 CHARACTERISTICS AND CHANGES IN IMPLEMENTING BUREAUCRACIES 163
5.4 CHAIN APPROACHES IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF POLICY 169
5.5 SERVICE AS ASPECT OF THE IMPLEMENTATION 173
5.6 MONITORING, SUPERVISION AND ENFORCEMENT 177
5.7 CONCLUSION 185
6 EVALUATING PUBLIC POLICY 187
6.1 TYPES OF EVALUATION 189
6.2 EVALUATION CRITERIA 192
6.3 DESIGNING POLICY EVALUATION 196
6.4 UTILIZATION OF EVALUATION STUDIES 207
6.5 EVALUATION AS A FORM OF ACCOUNTABILITY 211
6.6 CONCLUSION 214
7 POLICY DYNAMICS: LEARNING, CHANGE AND INNOVATION 216
7.1 INTRODUCTION 216
7.2 CONCEPTUALIZING POLICY DYNAMICS AND POLICY LEARNING 217
7.3 RATIONAL PERSPECTIVE; LEANING AS THE MOTOR OF POLICY CHANGE 224
7.4 POLITICAL PERSPECTIVE; BETWEEN POWERING AND PUZZLING 229
7.5 CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE; EPISTEMIC COMMUNITIES, DISCOURSES AND CRITICAL FRAME REFLECTION 234
7.6 INSTITUTIONAL PERSPECTIVE: INSTITUTIONAL PATH DEPENDENCY AND PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM 241
, 7.7 POLICY INNOVATION 245
7.8 CONCLUSION: TOWARDS A SYNTHESIS 253
8 THE REFLECTIVE POLICY MAKER 256
8.1 INTRODUCTION 256
8.2 LEGITIMACY: THE INVISIBLE HAND IN POLICY MAKING 258
8.3 LEGITIMACY: A SYSTEM ANALYSIS 264
8.4 OPERATING IN DIFFERENT WORLD: INSIDE AND OUTSIDE 270
8.5 CONTESTED KNOWLEDGE 272
8.6 INTEGRITY AND RESPONSIBILITY 275
8.7 TOWARDS A REFLECTIVE POLICY PRACTICE 276
REFERENCES 279
