CARDIOLOGY AND NEPHROLOGY
PHARMACOLOGY CERTIFICATION PAPER
2026 FULL SOLUTION GRADED A+
● Loop Diuretics. Answer: Act on the ascending limb of the loop of
Henle; most potent diuretics
● Osmotic Diuretics. Answer: Increases osmotic pressure to promote
water excretion
● Potassium-Sparing Diuretics. Answer: Aldosterone antagonists that
conserve potassium
● Thiazide and Thiazide-Like Diuretics. Answer: Inhibit sodium and
chloride reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule
● Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE) Inhibitors. Answer: Block
ACE to prevent angiotensin II formation; reduce vasoconstriction and
aldosterone secretion
● Angiotensin II Receptor Blockers (ARBs). Answer: Block AT1
receptors to prevent angiotensin II effects
, ● Alpha-2 Receptor Agonists. Answer: Decrease sympathetic outflow
from the CNS
● Beta Blockers. Answer: Reduce cardiac output and renin release
● Combined Alpha-1 and Beta Blockers. Answer: Both alpha and beta
blockade properties
● Calcium Channel Blockers (CCBs). Answer: Vascular smooth muscle
relaxation
● Vasodilators. Answer: Direct relaxation of vascular smooth muscle
● Direct Renin Inhibitors. Answer: Blocks renin to reduce angiotensin I
and II formation
● Nitrates and Nitrites. Answer: Venous and arterial dilation; reduce
cardiac preload and afterload
● Beta Blockers (for Angina). Answer: Reduce heart rate and
myocardial oxygen demand
● Calcium Channel Blockers (for Variant Angina). Answer: Prevent
coronary vasospasm; reduce afterload
PHARMACOLOGY CERTIFICATION PAPER
2026 FULL SOLUTION GRADED A+
● Loop Diuretics. Answer: Act on the ascending limb of the loop of
Henle; most potent diuretics
● Osmotic Diuretics. Answer: Increases osmotic pressure to promote
water excretion
● Potassium-Sparing Diuretics. Answer: Aldosterone antagonists that
conserve potassium
● Thiazide and Thiazide-Like Diuretics. Answer: Inhibit sodium and
chloride reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule
● Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE) Inhibitors. Answer: Block
ACE to prevent angiotensin II formation; reduce vasoconstriction and
aldosterone secretion
● Angiotensin II Receptor Blockers (ARBs). Answer: Block AT1
receptors to prevent angiotensin II effects
, ● Alpha-2 Receptor Agonists. Answer: Decrease sympathetic outflow
from the CNS
● Beta Blockers. Answer: Reduce cardiac output and renin release
● Combined Alpha-1 and Beta Blockers. Answer: Both alpha and beta
blockade properties
● Calcium Channel Blockers (CCBs). Answer: Vascular smooth muscle
relaxation
● Vasodilators. Answer: Direct relaxation of vascular smooth muscle
● Direct Renin Inhibitors. Answer: Blocks renin to reduce angiotensin I
and II formation
● Nitrates and Nitrites. Answer: Venous and arterial dilation; reduce
cardiac preload and afterload
● Beta Blockers (for Angina). Answer: Reduce heart rate and
myocardial oxygen demand
● Calcium Channel Blockers (for Variant Angina). Answer: Prevent
coronary vasospasm; reduce afterload
