PLC3702
May June Portfolio 2026
Unique number
Due date: 13 May 2026
TABLE OF CONTENTS (All questions answered)
QUESTION 1: A closed hegemony is, in essence, a non-democratic regime. Elaborate
further on this statement. In your discussion, clearly outline primary sub-classes of a closed
hegemony, and characteristics of a political life in the regime. Provide examples to support
your answer. .............................................................................................................. 3
QUESTION 2: Critically discuss the difference between liberal and social democracy. Use
examples from any two countries of your choice to support your answer ................ 10
QUESTION 3: Compare and contrast advantages and disadvantages of consociational
democracy with those of majoritarianism. Indicate which one of the two would be more
suitable for a multicultural society like South Africa. ................................................ 16
QUESTION 4: Critically outline the difference between procedural and substantive
,TABLE OF CONTENTS (All questions answered)
QUESTION 1: A closed hegemony is, in essence, a non-democratic regime.
Elaborate further on this statement. In your discussion, clearly outline primary sub-
classes of a closed hegemony, and characteristics of a political life in the regime.
Provide examples to support your answer. ................................................................ 3
QUESTION 2: Critically discuss the difference between liberal and social democracy.
Use examples from any two countries of your choice to support your answer ......... 10
QUESTION 3: Compare and contrast advantages and disadvantages of
consociational democracy with those of majoritarianism. Indicate which one of the
two would be more suitable for a multicultural society like South Africa. .................. 16
QUESTION 4: Critically outline the difference between procedural and substantive
democracy. Provide any two case studies of your choice to support your answer. .. 23
QUESTION 5: What is the significance and purpose of comparison in the study of
democracy and other forms of regime? Use relevant examples to support your
answer...................................................................................................................... 31
QUESTION 6: Collate and compare advantages and disadvantages of direct, indirect
and semi-direct democracy. Accordingly, indicate which form of democracy, in your
opinion, is more suitable for contemporary democratic societies. Provide sufficient
reasons for your position. ......................................................................................... 38
,QUESTION 1: A closed hegemony is, in essence, a non-democratic regime.
Elaborate further on this statement. In your discussion, clearly outline primary
sub-classes of a closed hegemony, and characteristics of a political life in the
regime. Provide examples to support your answer.
1. Introduction
A closed hegemony refers to a political regime in which ordinary citizens are
excluded from meaningful political participation and political authority remains
concentrated in the hands of a small ruling group. Closed hegemonies are regarded
as non-democratic because rulers are not accountable to the people and political
opposition is usually suppressed (Dahl, 1984:76).
Unlike democratic systems where citizens participate freely in political processes and
leaders remain accountable to voters, closed hegemonies demand obedience from
the population and limit political freedom. Political authority flows from the top down
and citizens have little influence over decision making (Heywood, 1997:26).
Closed hegemonies include different forms of authoritarian and totalitarian rule.
These regimes vary in the degree to which they control society, private life, and
political activity. This discussion explains the concept of closed hegemony, examines
its primary sub-classes, and discusses the characteristics of political life within these
regimes. Examples from different countries are used to support the discussion.
2. The concept of closed hegemony
2.1 Meaning of closed hegemony
Closed hegemony refers to a political system where most citizens are excluded from
political participation and where leadership cannot be challenged by ordinary people
or opposition groups (Dahl, 1984:76). Political power remains concentrated within a
closed ruling elite.
In a closed hegemony, the authorities are sovereign and accountable mainly to
themselves rather than to citizens. Participation in politics is restricted and citizens
are expected to obey the state without questioning political authority (Jackson &
Jackson, 1997:81).
, Political communication in such systems usually moves from government to society.
Information is controlled by ruling authorities and criticism of the government is
discouraged or punished (Heywood, 1997:27).
2.2 Closed hegemony as a non-democratic regime
Closed hegemonies are regarded as non-democratic because they fail to meet the
basic requirements of democracy. Democratic systems require free political
participation, accountability, political competition, and protection of rights and
freedoms. Closed hegemonies limit or completely remove these democratic features
(Held, 1993:145).
Citizens in closed hegemonies often cannot choose leaders freely through fair
elections. Opposition parties may be banned, elections may be manipulated, and
political dissent may be suppressed through intimidation or force (Ranney, 1996:78).
Political leaders in closed hegemonies usually maintain power through coercion,
censorship, surveillance, and control over state institutions. Citizens therefore obey
the authorities mainly because of fear, pressure, or lack of alternatives rather than
democratic consent (Heywood, 1997:28).
3. Primary sub-classes of closed hegemony
3.1 Authoritarianism
3.1.1 Meaning of authoritarianism
Authoritarianism is one of the main sub-classes of closed hegemony. Authoritarian
regimes demand obedience and loyalty from citizens while restricting political
participation and political competition (Jackson & Jackson, 1997:81).
In authoritarian systems, rulers often maintain strong control over political institutions
but still allow some degree of personal freedom in private life. Citizens may conduct
personal, cultural, or economic activities as long as they do not challenge the
authority of the regime (Heywood, 1997:30).
Political participation in authoritarian systems is limited and controlled by the state.
Elections may exist, but they are usually not free or competitive because opposition
groups are weakened or excluded (Held, 1993:149).
May June Portfolio 2026
Unique number
Due date: 13 May 2026
TABLE OF CONTENTS (All questions answered)
QUESTION 1: A closed hegemony is, in essence, a non-democratic regime. Elaborate
further on this statement. In your discussion, clearly outline primary sub-classes of a closed
hegemony, and characteristics of a political life in the regime. Provide examples to support
your answer. .............................................................................................................. 3
QUESTION 2: Critically discuss the difference between liberal and social democracy. Use
examples from any two countries of your choice to support your answer ................ 10
QUESTION 3: Compare and contrast advantages and disadvantages of consociational
democracy with those of majoritarianism. Indicate which one of the two would be more
suitable for a multicultural society like South Africa. ................................................ 16
QUESTION 4: Critically outline the difference between procedural and substantive
,TABLE OF CONTENTS (All questions answered)
QUESTION 1: A closed hegemony is, in essence, a non-democratic regime.
Elaborate further on this statement. In your discussion, clearly outline primary sub-
classes of a closed hegemony, and characteristics of a political life in the regime.
Provide examples to support your answer. ................................................................ 3
QUESTION 2: Critically discuss the difference between liberal and social democracy.
Use examples from any two countries of your choice to support your answer ......... 10
QUESTION 3: Compare and contrast advantages and disadvantages of
consociational democracy with those of majoritarianism. Indicate which one of the
two would be more suitable for a multicultural society like South Africa. .................. 16
QUESTION 4: Critically outline the difference between procedural and substantive
democracy. Provide any two case studies of your choice to support your answer. .. 23
QUESTION 5: What is the significance and purpose of comparison in the study of
democracy and other forms of regime? Use relevant examples to support your
answer...................................................................................................................... 31
QUESTION 6: Collate and compare advantages and disadvantages of direct, indirect
and semi-direct democracy. Accordingly, indicate which form of democracy, in your
opinion, is more suitable for contemporary democratic societies. Provide sufficient
reasons for your position. ......................................................................................... 38
,QUESTION 1: A closed hegemony is, in essence, a non-democratic regime.
Elaborate further on this statement. In your discussion, clearly outline primary
sub-classes of a closed hegemony, and characteristics of a political life in the
regime. Provide examples to support your answer.
1. Introduction
A closed hegemony refers to a political regime in which ordinary citizens are
excluded from meaningful political participation and political authority remains
concentrated in the hands of a small ruling group. Closed hegemonies are regarded
as non-democratic because rulers are not accountable to the people and political
opposition is usually suppressed (Dahl, 1984:76).
Unlike democratic systems where citizens participate freely in political processes and
leaders remain accountable to voters, closed hegemonies demand obedience from
the population and limit political freedom. Political authority flows from the top down
and citizens have little influence over decision making (Heywood, 1997:26).
Closed hegemonies include different forms of authoritarian and totalitarian rule.
These regimes vary in the degree to which they control society, private life, and
political activity. This discussion explains the concept of closed hegemony, examines
its primary sub-classes, and discusses the characteristics of political life within these
regimes. Examples from different countries are used to support the discussion.
2. The concept of closed hegemony
2.1 Meaning of closed hegemony
Closed hegemony refers to a political system where most citizens are excluded from
political participation and where leadership cannot be challenged by ordinary people
or opposition groups (Dahl, 1984:76). Political power remains concentrated within a
closed ruling elite.
In a closed hegemony, the authorities are sovereign and accountable mainly to
themselves rather than to citizens. Participation in politics is restricted and citizens
are expected to obey the state without questioning political authority (Jackson &
Jackson, 1997:81).
, Political communication in such systems usually moves from government to society.
Information is controlled by ruling authorities and criticism of the government is
discouraged or punished (Heywood, 1997:27).
2.2 Closed hegemony as a non-democratic regime
Closed hegemonies are regarded as non-democratic because they fail to meet the
basic requirements of democracy. Democratic systems require free political
participation, accountability, political competition, and protection of rights and
freedoms. Closed hegemonies limit or completely remove these democratic features
(Held, 1993:145).
Citizens in closed hegemonies often cannot choose leaders freely through fair
elections. Opposition parties may be banned, elections may be manipulated, and
political dissent may be suppressed through intimidation or force (Ranney, 1996:78).
Political leaders in closed hegemonies usually maintain power through coercion,
censorship, surveillance, and control over state institutions. Citizens therefore obey
the authorities mainly because of fear, pressure, or lack of alternatives rather than
democratic consent (Heywood, 1997:28).
3. Primary sub-classes of closed hegemony
3.1 Authoritarianism
3.1.1 Meaning of authoritarianism
Authoritarianism is one of the main sub-classes of closed hegemony. Authoritarian
regimes demand obedience and loyalty from citizens while restricting political
participation and political competition (Jackson & Jackson, 1997:81).
In authoritarian systems, rulers often maintain strong control over political institutions
but still allow some degree of personal freedom in private life. Citizens may conduct
personal, cultural, or economic activities as long as they do not challenge the
authority of the regime (Heywood, 1997:30).
Political participation in authoritarian systems is limited and controlled by the state.
Elections may exist, but they are usually not free or competitive because opposition
groups are weakened or excluded (Held, 1993:149).
