NUR 211 – Exam 4 Study Guide
1. Concept of Intracranial Regulation
The major divisions of the nervous system are the central nervous system (CNS – brain and spinal
cord), and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). These systems work together to control cognition,
mobility, and sensory perception.
Anatomy and Physiology Review:
Nervous System Cells: Structure and Function
• The basic unit of the nervous system is the neuron which transmits impulses, or “messages.”
o Motor neurons: cause purposeful physical movement
▪ Efferent neurons: motor neurons that carry signals away from the CNS and to
the cells in the PNS
o Sensory neurons: have the ability to perceive stimulation through one’s sensory
organs or sensory perception
▪ Afferent neurons: sensory neuron that sends impulses toward the CNS, and
away from the PNS
o Other neurons process information, and some retain information
o When neurons receive information, the effect may be excitation (increasing
action) or inhibition (decreasing action)
o Each neuron has a soma (cell body), dendrites (branching processes that send
impulses along the efferent or afferent pathways), and a single axon
o Axons are covered by a myelin sheath which is a white, lipid covering.
▪ Myelinated axons appear whiteish and therefore are also known as white matter.
These axons have gaps in them known as Nodes of Ranvier which play a major
role in impulse conduction. When the brain is impaired, the impulses cannot
travel from the brain to the rest of the body. For example, patients with MS.
▪ Nonmyelinated axons have a grayish cast and are called gray matter.
o The enlarged distal end of each axon has a synaptic or terminal knob, and within these
synaptic knobs are the mechanism for manufacturing, storing, and releasing a
transmitter substance. Each neuron produces a specific neurotransmitter chemical
(for example, serotonin) that can either inhibit or enhance the impulses but cannot
do both.
o Impulses are transmitted to their destination through synapses (space between
neurons). There are two types of synapses:
▪ Neuron to neuron
▪ Neuron to muscle (or gland)
o Neuroglia cells provide protection, structure, and nutrition for the neurons. These cells
are part of the blood-brain barrier and help regulate cerebrospinal fluid
• Central nervous system (CNS)
o Brain: directs the regulation and function of the nervous system and all other systems of
the body
▪ Meninges: protective covering of the brain and the spinal cord. The outside
layer is the dura mater.
▪ Potential space, referred to as the epidural space is located between the skull
and the outer layer of the dura mater. This area also
extends down the spinal cord and is used for the
delivery of epidural analgesia and anesthesia.
,▪ Dura mater also lies between the cerebral hemispheres and the cerebellum
and is called the tentorium which helps decrease or prevents the
transmission of force
, from one hemisphere to another and protects the lower brainstem when head
trauma occurs
▪ The brain consists of three main parts:
• Forebrain
o Lies above the brainstem and cerebellum and is the most
advances un function complexity. Further divided into three
sections:
▪ Diencephalon: lies below the cerebrum, and includes
the thalamus (relay station), hypothalamus (helps in
controlling autonomic functions such as temperature),
and epithalamus (helps regulate emotions to smooth
voluntary motor function)
▪ Cerebrum: largest part of the brain and controls
intelligence, creativity, and memory. The “gray
matter” of the cerebrum is the central cortex –
receives
information from the thalamus and all other lower
parts of the brain. Consists of two halves and are
joined by the corpus callosum:
• Right hemisphere
• Left hemisphere: usually dominant
hemisphere in most people, even in people
who are left
handed.
▪ Even deeper in the cerebrum are the right and left
ventricles, and at the base of them is the basal
ganglia which is responsible for motor function
▪ Cerebral cortex: part of the cerebrum and involved in
almost all of the higher functions of the brain.
Processes
and communicates all information coming from the
PNS. Also translates feelings and thoughts. Further
divided into four lobes and these are their main
functions:
• Frontal lobe: primary motor area, Broca’s
speech area on the dominant side, voluntary
eye
movement, access to current sensory data,
access to past information or experience,
affective response to a situation, behavior
regulation, judgement, ability to develop
long- term goals, reasoning, concentration,
and abstraction
• Parietal lobe: understanding sensory input
such as texture, size, shape, and spatial
relationships.
Three-dimensional (spatial) perception.
Needed for singing, playing musical
instruments, and processing. Perception of
body parts and body position awareness. Taste
impulses for interpretation.
, • Temporal lobe: auditory center for sound
interpretation, complicated memory patters,
and Wernicke’s area for speech
• Occipital lobe: primary visual center
1. Concept of Intracranial Regulation
The major divisions of the nervous system are the central nervous system (CNS – brain and spinal
cord), and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). These systems work together to control cognition,
mobility, and sensory perception.
Anatomy and Physiology Review:
Nervous System Cells: Structure and Function
• The basic unit of the nervous system is the neuron which transmits impulses, or “messages.”
o Motor neurons: cause purposeful physical movement
▪ Efferent neurons: motor neurons that carry signals away from the CNS and to
the cells in the PNS
o Sensory neurons: have the ability to perceive stimulation through one’s sensory
organs or sensory perception
▪ Afferent neurons: sensory neuron that sends impulses toward the CNS, and
away from the PNS
o Other neurons process information, and some retain information
o When neurons receive information, the effect may be excitation (increasing
action) or inhibition (decreasing action)
o Each neuron has a soma (cell body), dendrites (branching processes that send
impulses along the efferent or afferent pathways), and a single axon
o Axons are covered by a myelin sheath which is a white, lipid covering.
▪ Myelinated axons appear whiteish and therefore are also known as white matter.
These axons have gaps in them known as Nodes of Ranvier which play a major
role in impulse conduction. When the brain is impaired, the impulses cannot
travel from the brain to the rest of the body. For example, patients with MS.
▪ Nonmyelinated axons have a grayish cast and are called gray matter.
o The enlarged distal end of each axon has a synaptic or terminal knob, and within these
synaptic knobs are the mechanism for manufacturing, storing, and releasing a
transmitter substance. Each neuron produces a specific neurotransmitter chemical
(for example, serotonin) that can either inhibit or enhance the impulses but cannot
do both.
o Impulses are transmitted to their destination through synapses (space between
neurons). There are two types of synapses:
▪ Neuron to neuron
▪ Neuron to muscle (or gland)
o Neuroglia cells provide protection, structure, and nutrition for the neurons. These cells
are part of the blood-brain barrier and help regulate cerebrospinal fluid
• Central nervous system (CNS)
o Brain: directs the regulation and function of the nervous system and all other systems of
the body
▪ Meninges: protective covering of the brain and the spinal cord. The outside
layer is the dura mater.
▪ Potential space, referred to as the epidural space is located between the skull
and the outer layer of the dura mater. This area also
extends down the spinal cord and is used for the
delivery of epidural analgesia and anesthesia.
,▪ Dura mater also lies between the cerebral hemispheres and the cerebellum
and is called the tentorium which helps decrease or prevents the
transmission of force
, from one hemisphere to another and protects the lower brainstem when head
trauma occurs
▪ The brain consists of three main parts:
• Forebrain
o Lies above the brainstem and cerebellum and is the most
advances un function complexity. Further divided into three
sections:
▪ Diencephalon: lies below the cerebrum, and includes
the thalamus (relay station), hypothalamus (helps in
controlling autonomic functions such as temperature),
and epithalamus (helps regulate emotions to smooth
voluntary motor function)
▪ Cerebrum: largest part of the brain and controls
intelligence, creativity, and memory. The “gray
matter” of the cerebrum is the central cortex –
receives
information from the thalamus and all other lower
parts of the brain. Consists of two halves and are
joined by the corpus callosum:
• Right hemisphere
• Left hemisphere: usually dominant
hemisphere in most people, even in people
who are left
handed.
▪ Even deeper in the cerebrum are the right and left
ventricles, and at the base of them is the basal
ganglia which is responsible for motor function
▪ Cerebral cortex: part of the cerebrum and involved in
almost all of the higher functions of the brain.
Processes
and communicates all information coming from the
PNS. Also translates feelings and thoughts. Further
divided into four lobes and these are their main
functions:
• Frontal lobe: primary motor area, Broca’s
speech area on the dominant side, voluntary
eye
movement, access to current sensory data,
access to past information or experience,
affective response to a situation, behavior
regulation, judgement, ability to develop
long- term goals, reasoning, concentration,
and abstraction
• Parietal lobe: understanding sensory input
such as texture, size, shape, and spatial
relationships.
Three-dimensional (spatial) perception.
Needed for singing, playing musical
instruments, and processing. Perception of
body parts and body position awareness. Taste
impulses for interpretation.
, • Temporal lobe: auditory center for sound
interpretation, complicated memory patters,
and Wernicke’s area for speech
• Occipital lobe: primary visual center
