NURS 753 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE – COMPREHENSIVE CARDIOVASCULAR,
RESPIRATORY, NEUROLOGIC, RENAL & GENETIC DISORDERS REVIEW NOTES A+ VERIFIED LATEST
VERSION
1. WHICH PROCESSES REQUIRE CELL ENERGY FOR ACTIVE AND PASSIVE
TRANSPORT?: Active transport
2. What is active transport?: The movement against concentration gradients by proteins utilizing energy,
usually ATP.
3. What is simple diffusion?: § Movement of solutes from high concentration to low concentration
§ Will occur until the concentration of solutes is even on both sides
§ Cell energy is NOT expended
§ Lipid soluble and small molecules (oxygen) dittuse faster than ions and polarized molecules
4. What is facilitated diffusion?: § Dittusion occurring with the assistance of a carrier molecule
§ Cell energy is NOT expended
§ Example: Insulin and glucose
5. What is osmosis?: § Passive movement of water or any solvent across the cellular membrane from an area
of low solute concentration to high solute concentration
§ Water is an important solvent, ie fluid that can dissolve the vital solutes we need to live
· Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, Chloride etc.
§ Our cellular membrane is very permeable to water as the solvent but not as permeable to the solutes
§ Water will move as needed to achieve equivalent concentrations of solutes on both sides of the membrane via
osmosis
§ Balance of water must be maintained, or the cell will lyse due to high intracellular water concentration
6. What is Autosomal Dominant Disorders?: § Passed from an attected parent to an ottspring,
male and female are equally capable of transmission
§ One parent must have the trait
§ Can occur with homozygous and heterozygous allele pairs
§ Homozygous fetus is unlikely to survive or to have severe disability (disease will be doubly severe
7. What is Autosomal Recessive Disorders?: § Single-gene mutations passed from an attected
parent to an ottspring regardless of sex, but they occur only in homozygous (aa) allele pairs
§ Heterozygous parents are carriers of the disorder but do not have the phenotype
§ Likely to continue through generations because of carriers
8. UNDERSTAND THE MECHANISMS OF CELLULAR ADAPTION AND DIFFEREN-
TIATE THEM ON TISSUE BIOPSY OR DIAGNOSTIC TESTING: § Cells attempt to prevent
their own death from environmental changes through adaptation
§ May change size, number or types
, NURS 753 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE – COMPREHENSIVE CARDIOVASCULAR,
RESPIRATORY, NEUROLOGIC, RENAL & GENETIC DISORDERS REVIEW NOTES A+ VERIFIED LATEST
VERSION
§ Adaptation ceases once the stimulus to it is removed
§ Hypertrophy, atrophy, hyperplasia, dysplasia, metaplasia, neoplasia
9. Differentiation: Process by which cells become more specialized
10. Pluripotent cells: can develop into any kind of cells
11. Germ Layers: Cells branch into two groups, peripheral and inner
12. Adult stem cells: § can only make cells within their germ layer (multipotent)
§ Some adult stem cells are unipotent (only make a single cell type)
13. How many tissue types are there?: 3
14. Name the three tissue types: epithelial, connective, and muscle
15. Epithelial Tissues: · Lines the outside and all interior areas of the body
· Three types: squamous, cuboidal and columnar
· Functions include protection (keratin), absorption, secretion and excretion
16. Connective Tissues: · Large extracellular matrix and fibroblast cells that produce several types of fibers
· Connective tissue proper (Fibrous): Loose/Dense
· Supporting connective tissue: Cartilage and bone
· Fluid connective tissue: Blood and Lymph
· Support, attach and store
17. Muscle Tissues: · Myocytes: consists of the contractile proteins actin and myosin.
· Proteins bind to each other causing a shortening and lengthening action
· Acetylcholine stimulates muscle fiber at the neuromuscular junction leading to an action potential. This releases
calcium.
o Calcium binds to troponin, and this binding uncovers the actin-binding sites and allows for myosin strands to pull
the actin, leading to muscle contraction
18. Neural consists of:: § Composed of neurons to process and transmit information
19. What is soma?: · Neuron cell body
20. What does an axon do?: · Conducts impulses away from the cell body
21. What is a dendrite?: Conducts impulses toward the cell body
22. Are neural cells capable of division and replication?: NO
23. What tissues are capable of replication?: Connective and Epithelial tissues only
24. What are the 3 layers of the cardiac tissue?: epicardium, myocardium, endocardium
25. Function of the Epicardium: Outer layer and protects the heart, produces factors that help the
cardiac cells properly develop, and ensuring proper response to cardiac cell injury.
, NURS 753 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE – COMPREHENSIVE CARDIOVASCULAR,
RESPIRATORY, NEUROLOGIC, RENAL & GENETIC DISORDERS REVIEW NOTES A+ VERIFIED LATEST
VERSION
26. Function of the Myocardium: Muscle portion of the organ, thicker on left chambers
§ Muscle of the heart
§ Muscles of the ventricles (especially Left Ventricle) are thicker than the atrium because the distance and pressure
against these chambers must pump blood
§ Atria are receiving chambers that pump blood to their respective ventricles
§ Ventricles pump blood to the low-pressure lungs and high-pressure circulation
27. Function of the Endocardium: Inner epithelial layer making up cardiac valves. It keeps the blood
flowing through the heart separate from the myocardium, or cardiac muscles
28. DESCRIBE THE PROCESS OF NORMAL BLOOD FLOW THROUGH THE CAR-
DIOVASCULAR SYSTEM.: o Blood low in oxygen enters the right atrium from systemic circulation through
superior/inferior vena cavas
o Blood flows from right atrium to right ventricle during ventricular diastole through the tricuspid valve
§ At end ventricular diastole, atria contracts to push last of blood into right ventricle (atrial kick)
o Rising ventricular pressure causes tricuspid valve to close
§ Pressure becomes higher in right ventricle than pulmonary artery, pulmonic valve opens and blood moves forward
o Blood is carried to lungs via pulmonary arteries for oxygenation
o Pressure in the right ventricle drops, closing the pulmonic valve.
o After oxygenation in the lungs, blood is carried to the left side of the heart via the pulmonary veins and enters the
left atrium
o Left atrium blood flows into left ventricle through the mitral valve during ventricular diastole
§ Atrial kick
o As left ventricular pressure increases, mitral valve closes
o When ventricular pressure exceeds aortic pressure, aortic valve opens, ventricle contracts and ejects blood through
aorta
o Blood is transported via the systemic circulation to the body
29. WHAT CAUSES THE NORMAL HEART SOUNDS OF S1/S2?: o The S1 heart sound is the
closing of the atrioventricular (tricuspid and mitral) valves
o The S2 heart sound is the closing of the semilunar (aortic [A1] and pulmonic [P2]) valves
30. The closing of the atrioventricular (tricuspid and mitral) valves is what?: S1
31. The closing of the semilunar (aortic [A1] and pulmonic [P2]) valves is what?-
: S2
, NURS 753 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE – COMPREHENSIVE CARDIOVASCULAR,
RESPIRATORY, NEUROLOGIC, RENAL & GENETIC DISORDERS REVIEW NOTES A+ VERIFIED LATEST
VERSION
32. WHEN IN THE CARDIAC CYCLE DO CORONARY ARTERIES PERFUSE?: Diastole;
Coronary vasculature is compressed by contracting myocardium
33. DESCRIBE THE PROCESS OF NORMAL CARDIAC CONDUCTION BEGINNING
IN THE SA NODE, THE OTHER POTENTIAL PACEMAKERS OF THE HEART
SHOULD THE SA NODE FAIL AND THE APPLICABLE EKG TRACING WAVE ASSO-
CIATED WITH EACH ONE.: SA NODE--> AV NODE > BUNDLE OF HIS > PURKINJE FIBERS
34. P wave is?: atrial depolarization
35. QRS complex is?: depolarization of ventricle
36. T wave is?: ventricular repolarization
37. what is the SA node?: Point of origin for normal cardiac conduction cycle
§ Generates impulses faster than other areas; average rate 60-100bpm
§ Impulses from SA node move through both atria causing contraction
38. What is the AV Node?: o Right atrium adjacent to the cardiac septum
§ Can initiate impulses; 40-60bpm
§ Impulses move more slowly through AV node so atria contracts right before the ventricle
39. What is the Bundle of His?: § Right and left branches, anterior and posterior bundles
40. What is the Purkinje fibers?: § Can pace themselves 20-40bpm to sustain life and Movement through
Bundle of His and Purkinje fibers causes ventricular contraction
41. What is automaticity?: All cardiac myocytes can contract independently and generate electrical impuls-
es without external stimulus
42. What is excitability?: Ability of the cells to respond to electrical impulses (refers to the myocyte's ability
to respond to the electrical impulse generated by a neighboring cell)
43. DESCRIBE THE PROCESS OF ACTION POTENTIAL FORMATION AND THE
FUNCTIONS OF EACH ION (SODIUM, CALCIUM AND POTASSIUM) IN PRODUC-
ING A CARDIAC ACTION POTENTIAL WITHIN A MYOCYTE.: § Potassium leaves the cell
via potassium cells, leaving behind a very negative membrane potential
§ Sodium and calcium start leaking through gap junctions, membrane becomes more positive
§ Fast (voltage-gated) sodium channels open and sodium floods the cell, driving the membrane potential way up
§ Fast sodium channels close, depolarization occurs
§ Voltage-gated potassium channels open because depolarization happened
§ Potassium starts leaking outwards again, membrane potential goes down
§ Calcium voltage-gated channels open and calcium moves into the cell
RESPIRATORY, NEUROLOGIC, RENAL & GENETIC DISORDERS REVIEW NOTES A+ VERIFIED LATEST
VERSION
1. WHICH PROCESSES REQUIRE CELL ENERGY FOR ACTIVE AND PASSIVE
TRANSPORT?: Active transport
2. What is active transport?: The movement against concentration gradients by proteins utilizing energy,
usually ATP.
3. What is simple diffusion?: § Movement of solutes from high concentration to low concentration
§ Will occur until the concentration of solutes is even on both sides
§ Cell energy is NOT expended
§ Lipid soluble and small molecules (oxygen) dittuse faster than ions and polarized molecules
4. What is facilitated diffusion?: § Dittusion occurring with the assistance of a carrier molecule
§ Cell energy is NOT expended
§ Example: Insulin and glucose
5. What is osmosis?: § Passive movement of water or any solvent across the cellular membrane from an area
of low solute concentration to high solute concentration
§ Water is an important solvent, ie fluid that can dissolve the vital solutes we need to live
· Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, Chloride etc.
§ Our cellular membrane is very permeable to water as the solvent but not as permeable to the solutes
§ Water will move as needed to achieve equivalent concentrations of solutes on both sides of the membrane via
osmosis
§ Balance of water must be maintained, or the cell will lyse due to high intracellular water concentration
6. What is Autosomal Dominant Disorders?: § Passed from an attected parent to an ottspring,
male and female are equally capable of transmission
§ One parent must have the trait
§ Can occur with homozygous and heterozygous allele pairs
§ Homozygous fetus is unlikely to survive or to have severe disability (disease will be doubly severe
7. What is Autosomal Recessive Disorders?: § Single-gene mutations passed from an attected
parent to an ottspring regardless of sex, but they occur only in homozygous (aa) allele pairs
§ Heterozygous parents are carriers of the disorder but do not have the phenotype
§ Likely to continue through generations because of carriers
8. UNDERSTAND THE MECHANISMS OF CELLULAR ADAPTION AND DIFFEREN-
TIATE THEM ON TISSUE BIOPSY OR DIAGNOSTIC TESTING: § Cells attempt to prevent
their own death from environmental changes through adaptation
§ May change size, number or types
, NURS 753 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE – COMPREHENSIVE CARDIOVASCULAR,
RESPIRATORY, NEUROLOGIC, RENAL & GENETIC DISORDERS REVIEW NOTES A+ VERIFIED LATEST
VERSION
§ Adaptation ceases once the stimulus to it is removed
§ Hypertrophy, atrophy, hyperplasia, dysplasia, metaplasia, neoplasia
9. Differentiation: Process by which cells become more specialized
10. Pluripotent cells: can develop into any kind of cells
11. Germ Layers: Cells branch into two groups, peripheral and inner
12. Adult stem cells: § can only make cells within their germ layer (multipotent)
§ Some adult stem cells are unipotent (only make a single cell type)
13. How many tissue types are there?: 3
14. Name the three tissue types: epithelial, connective, and muscle
15. Epithelial Tissues: · Lines the outside and all interior areas of the body
· Three types: squamous, cuboidal and columnar
· Functions include protection (keratin), absorption, secretion and excretion
16. Connective Tissues: · Large extracellular matrix and fibroblast cells that produce several types of fibers
· Connective tissue proper (Fibrous): Loose/Dense
· Supporting connective tissue: Cartilage and bone
· Fluid connective tissue: Blood and Lymph
· Support, attach and store
17. Muscle Tissues: · Myocytes: consists of the contractile proteins actin and myosin.
· Proteins bind to each other causing a shortening and lengthening action
· Acetylcholine stimulates muscle fiber at the neuromuscular junction leading to an action potential. This releases
calcium.
o Calcium binds to troponin, and this binding uncovers the actin-binding sites and allows for myosin strands to pull
the actin, leading to muscle contraction
18. Neural consists of:: § Composed of neurons to process and transmit information
19. What is soma?: · Neuron cell body
20. What does an axon do?: · Conducts impulses away from the cell body
21. What is a dendrite?: Conducts impulses toward the cell body
22. Are neural cells capable of division and replication?: NO
23. What tissues are capable of replication?: Connective and Epithelial tissues only
24. What are the 3 layers of the cardiac tissue?: epicardium, myocardium, endocardium
25. Function of the Epicardium: Outer layer and protects the heart, produces factors that help the
cardiac cells properly develop, and ensuring proper response to cardiac cell injury.
, NURS 753 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE – COMPREHENSIVE CARDIOVASCULAR,
RESPIRATORY, NEUROLOGIC, RENAL & GENETIC DISORDERS REVIEW NOTES A+ VERIFIED LATEST
VERSION
26. Function of the Myocardium: Muscle portion of the organ, thicker on left chambers
§ Muscle of the heart
§ Muscles of the ventricles (especially Left Ventricle) are thicker than the atrium because the distance and pressure
against these chambers must pump blood
§ Atria are receiving chambers that pump blood to their respective ventricles
§ Ventricles pump blood to the low-pressure lungs and high-pressure circulation
27. Function of the Endocardium: Inner epithelial layer making up cardiac valves. It keeps the blood
flowing through the heart separate from the myocardium, or cardiac muscles
28. DESCRIBE THE PROCESS OF NORMAL BLOOD FLOW THROUGH THE CAR-
DIOVASCULAR SYSTEM.: o Blood low in oxygen enters the right atrium from systemic circulation through
superior/inferior vena cavas
o Blood flows from right atrium to right ventricle during ventricular diastole through the tricuspid valve
§ At end ventricular diastole, atria contracts to push last of blood into right ventricle (atrial kick)
o Rising ventricular pressure causes tricuspid valve to close
§ Pressure becomes higher in right ventricle than pulmonary artery, pulmonic valve opens and blood moves forward
o Blood is carried to lungs via pulmonary arteries for oxygenation
o Pressure in the right ventricle drops, closing the pulmonic valve.
o After oxygenation in the lungs, blood is carried to the left side of the heart via the pulmonary veins and enters the
left atrium
o Left atrium blood flows into left ventricle through the mitral valve during ventricular diastole
§ Atrial kick
o As left ventricular pressure increases, mitral valve closes
o When ventricular pressure exceeds aortic pressure, aortic valve opens, ventricle contracts and ejects blood through
aorta
o Blood is transported via the systemic circulation to the body
29. WHAT CAUSES THE NORMAL HEART SOUNDS OF S1/S2?: o The S1 heart sound is the
closing of the atrioventricular (tricuspid and mitral) valves
o The S2 heart sound is the closing of the semilunar (aortic [A1] and pulmonic [P2]) valves
30. The closing of the atrioventricular (tricuspid and mitral) valves is what?: S1
31. The closing of the semilunar (aortic [A1] and pulmonic [P2]) valves is what?-
: S2
, NURS 753 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE – COMPREHENSIVE CARDIOVASCULAR,
RESPIRATORY, NEUROLOGIC, RENAL & GENETIC DISORDERS REVIEW NOTES A+ VERIFIED LATEST
VERSION
32. WHEN IN THE CARDIAC CYCLE DO CORONARY ARTERIES PERFUSE?: Diastole;
Coronary vasculature is compressed by contracting myocardium
33. DESCRIBE THE PROCESS OF NORMAL CARDIAC CONDUCTION BEGINNING
IN THE SA NODE, THE OTHER POTENTIAL PACEMAKERS OF THE HEART
SHOULD THE SA NODE FAIL AND THE APPLICABLE EKG TRACING WAVE ASSO-
CIATED WITH EACH ONE.: SA NODE--> AV NODE > BUNDLE OF HIS > PURKINJE FIBERS
34. P wave is?: atrial depolarization
35. QRS complex is?: depolarization of ventricle
36. T wave is?: ventricular repolarization
37. what is the SA node?: Point of origin for normal cardiac conduction cycle
§ Generates impulses faster than other areas; average rate 60-100bpm
§ Impulses from SA node move through both atria causing contraction
38. What is the AV Node?: o Right atrium adjacent to the cardiac septum
§ Can initiate impulses; 40-60bpm
§ Impulses move more slowly through AV node so atria contracts right before the ventricle
39. What is the Bundle of His?: § Right and left branches, anterior and posterior bundles
40. What is the Purkinje fibers?: § Can pace themselves 20-40bpm to sustain life and Movement through
Bundle of His and Purkinje fibers causes ventricular contraction
41. What is automaticity?: All cardiac myocytes can contract independently and generate electrical impuls-
es without external stimulus
42. What is excitability?: Ability of the cells to respond to electrical impulses (refers to the myocyte's ability
to respond to the electrical impulse generated by a neighboring cell)
43. DESCRIBE THE PROCESS OF ACTION POTENTIAL FORMATION AND THE
FUNCTIONS OF EACH ION (SODIUM, CALCIUM AND POTASSIUM) IN PRODUC-
ING A CARDIAC ACTION POTENTIAL WITHIN A MYOCYTE.: § Potassium leaves the cell
via potassium cells, leaving behind a very negative membrane potential
§ Sodium and calcium start leaking through gap junctions, membrane becomes more positive
§ Fast (voltage-gated) sodium channels open and sodium floods the cell, driving the membrane potential way up
§ Fast sodium channels close, depolarization occurs
§ Voltage-gated potassium channels open because depolarization happened
§ Potassium starts leaking outwards again, membrane potential goes down
§ Calcium voltage-gated channels open and calcium moves into the cell
