Ruling the Second Reich:
The Kaiserreich:
- Kaiser – could appoint/dismiss the Chancellor and dissolve the Reichstag, control
foreign policy, make treaties and alliances, command the army, declare war and
peace.
- Chancellor – responsible to the Emperor not the Reichstag, chaired sessions of
the Bundesrat and could appoint/dismiss state secretaries
- The Reichstag – national parliament, elected by all males over 25, could accept or
reject legislation but had only limited powers to initiate new laws. Members
elected every 5 years unless the Reichstag was dissolved by the Kaiser
- The Bundesrat – federal council, 58 members, nominated by the state
assemblies. Prussia had 17 members, Bavaria 6 and the smaller states one each.
Bundesrat’s consent was required in passing new laws, it had the power to
change the constitution. A vote of 14 constituted a veto
- Each of the 25 states, or Länder, was allowed to retain its own constitution. They
retained control over education, transport, direct taxation, policing and health.
The southern states enjoyed certain privileges not given to the northern states
due to deals Bismarck made with them to join the Northern Confederation in
1871
- The federal government was able to set national tariffs, control the banking
system and set the direction of German foreign and economic policy. The kings of
Bavaria, Saxony and Wurttemberg retained their own armies
Trying to reconcile unity and division:
- over 60% of the population were Protestant, but Catholicism was strong
especially in south-west Germany and in the Rhineland
- 10% of the Reich’s population were Poles, Danes or French
- Economic and social divisions, between the rich and poor, and between the
industrialising north and west and the predominantly rural south and east
- Prussian dominance:
Prussia possessed 60% of Germany’s population and two-thirds of its
territory. It has 235 out of 397 deputies in the Reichstag. It had 17
seats in the Bundesrat which meant it could veto easily
Prussian king was German Emperor, head of the imperial executive
and civil service and head of the army
Prussian state government – Prussian voters were divided into 3
classes, according to the amount of taxes they paid. The rich
therefore had more electoral power than the poor so the power
remained in conservative hands.
The importance of the Reichstag and the parties:
- Reichstag weaknesses – gave little opportunity for the exercise of democracy
– they could disapprove of the Chancellor but could not dismiss him, whereas
the Reichstag itself could be dismissed at any time and new elections called.
Bismarck was only willing to work with the Reichstag if they accepted his
, proposals or some compromise acceptable to him – or he would dissolve the
Reichstag and call new elections to win backing for his measures.
- Reichstag strengths – Bismarck was forced to negotiate with the Reichstag as
the Kaiserreich needed a vast number of new laws and the government
needed more money, which only the Reichstag could provide. No parliament
in the world was elected on a broader franchise
- Most Germans remained respectful of authority, believing it to be right and
proper that the Emperor, or Chancellor, should rule. There was no
widespread conviction that power should reside in a political party who had
the most seats in the Reichstag
The impact of regional and social divisions:
- Many southern Germans did not like Prussia and Prussian rule – most
southern Germans were Catholics whereas most northern Germans were
Protestants. Bismarck’s kulturkampf made matters worse
- National minorities – Poles, Danes, French – enemies of the state. Thus
Bismarck; outlawed Polish language in education and law courts, and Alsace-
Lorraine became a special region under direct imperial rule with a governor
and Prussian civil servants. The German language was imposed in schools and
local administration. The French who disliked German rule were allowed to
leave.
- Growing industrial development after 1871 increased Germany’s industrial
working class. Many of the proletariat were attracted to socialism
- Bismarck regarded socialists as dangerous revolutionaries and a threat to the
kind of society he wanted to maintain. In 1876 he tried to pass a bill
preventing the publication of socialist propaganda, it was defeated. In May
1878 there was an assassination attempt on the Emperor. Bismarck wrongly
associated this with socialism and tried to push through another bill against
socialism which was defeated by the National Liberals. A second attempt on
the Emperor a week later led Bismarck to criticise the National Liberals for
failing to pass the anti-socialist bill that might have protected the Emperor.
He dissolved the Reichstag. The electorate were deeply shocked by the
assassination attempts, blamed the SPD and the National Liberals, whom
both lost votes in the following elections
- The new Reichstag passed an anti-socialist bill in 1878, supported by
Conservatives and most National Liberals which banned socialist
organisations, including trade unions, forbid socialist meetings and outlawed
socialist publications. However, the law was implemented differently in
different states, and did not prevent SPD members from standing for election
and speaking freely in both the Reichstag and state legislatures. In 1880s
Bismarck tried to move the working classes away from socialism by
introducing various welfare measures such as old age pensions. Many
German workers believed them a sham and SPD support continued to
increase.
, Bismarck’s power:
- Realpolitik – he hoped to achieve conservative ends by means that were
often far from conservative. His methods often brought him into conflict with
Wilhelm I and the Prussian elites. Many distrusted his tactics but most
respected his judgement
- Limitations to Bismarck’s power – the fact that Germany was a federal state
reduced his influence. The Reichstag was a major constraint. His long
absences from Berlin (he liked to spend time on his country estates), and his
poor health reduced his control of day-to-day decision making
- Bismarck needed a parliamentary majority, so he worked with the National
Liberals, the Reichstag’s strongest party for most of the 1870s. The National
Liberals were eager to help him consolidate national unity. A great deal of
useful legislation was passed:
A national currency was introduced
A Reichsbank was created
All internal tariffs were abolished
There was much legal standardisation
- Bismarck did not agree with the National Liberals’ hopes for extension of
parliamentary government and also was irritated by their opposition to some
of his proposals, including the army budget
- The War in Sight crisis – Bismarck was prepared to use nationalism to rally
support. In 1875 he claimed that France was planning a war of revenge
against Germany, through a press campaign. This won him popular support in
Germany, but it was not a great diplomatic success. Britain and Russia
warned Germany about its provocative actions, forcing Bismarck to offer
assurances that Germany was not contemplating war with France.
Demonstrated the influence of the German military on governmental policy,
as well as Bismarck’s use of the press to mount political campaigns. The crisis
weakened the Three Emperors League, an alliance Germany had made with
Russia and Austro-Hungary in 1873, and subsequently encouraged a growing
unease in Europe towards the diplomatic goals of the new German nation
- In the early 1870s Bismarck supported free trade, an essential principle of the
National Liberals. in 1879, he ditched both free trade and the National
Liberals
- Protective tariffs were introduced because the federal government’s revenue
did not cover the growing costs of armaments and administration. To make
up the deficit, supplementary payments were made by individual states.
Bismarck hoped that the new tariffs would ensure that the federal
government was financially independent of the states and the Reichstag. By
the late 1870s many Germans were clamouring for protective tariffs. Thus,
Bismarck could broaden his political support. In the 1878 elections, the
, National Liberals lost 30 seats and Protectionists, made up mostly of
Conservatives and Centre Party members had a majority in the Reichstag
- 1879 tariff bill passed through the Reichstag, imposing duties on imports.
Bismarck was now firmly committed to the Conservatives. Some National
Liberals united with the Progressives, others remained loyal to Bismarck
The Kulturkampf:
- Reasons – in 1864 the papacy condemned every major principle for which
liberals stood, such as democracy and religious liberty. In 1870 the Vatican
council laid down the doctrine of papal infallibility – the pope’s moral
teachings took precedence over that of the state. German Protestants and
liberals were alarmed and feared that militant Catholicism would interfere in
the Reich’s affairs
- Bismarck, a sincere Protestant, viewed Catholics with suspicion. Many of
those who opposed unification, were Catholic. Bismarck saw the (Catholic)
Centre Party’s success in 1871 as a danger to the Empire’s unity
- Anti-Catholic legislation was passed in Prussia, by other state governments
and by the Reichstag. In 1872:
Catholic schools were brought under state supervision
The Reichstag banned Jesuits from Germany
- In 1873, Prussian Minister of Religion and Education introduced the May
Laws:
All priesthood candidates had to attend a secular university before
commencing training
All religious appointments became subject to state approval
- In 1874 obligatory civil marriage was introduced in Prussia
- In 1875 all religious orders, except nursing orders, were dissolved
- Clergy could be fined, prisoned or expelled if they failed to comply with the
legislation
- Failure of the Kulturkampf – attempt to repress Catholicism met with
considerable opposition. Catholic communities fiercely maintained their
religious culture. Bismarck’s hope of destroying the Centre Party backfired:
the Kulturkampf strengthened rather than weakened his opponents. In 1871
the Centre Party won 58 seats; in 1874 it won 91
- End of the Kulturkampf – Bismarck accepted it had failed – it had increased
disunity between the Reich and its Catholic subjects, not removed it.
Negotiations with the Pope led to improved relations between Bismarck and
the Church. Some anti-Catholic measures were repealed. Bismarck sought to
turn a setback to his advantage by winning Centre Party support for his
conservative, protectionist and anti-socialist measures
The appeal to nationalism to achieve unity:
- Parliament introduced policies that sought to create a national reichdeutsche
identity
The Kaiserreich:
- Kaiser – could appoint/dismiss the Chancellor and dissolve the Reichstag, control
foreign policy, make treaties and alliances, command the army, declare war and
peace.
- Chancellor – responsible to the Emperor not the Reichstag, chaired sessions of
the Bundesrat and could appoint/dismiss state secretaries
- The Reichstag – national parliament, elected by all males over 25, could accept or
reject legislation but had only limited powers to initiate new laws. Members
elected every 5 years unless the Reichstag was dissolved by the Kaiser
- The Bundesrat – federal council, 58 members, nominated by the state
assemblies. Prussia had 17 members, Bavaria 6 and the smaller states one each.
Bundesrat’s consent was required in passing new laws, it had the power to
change the constitution. A vote of 14 constituted a veto
- Each of the 25 states, or Länder, was allowed to retain its own constitution. They
retained control over education, transport, direct taxation, policing and health.
The southern states enjoyed certain privileges not given to the northern states
due to deals Bismarck made with them to join the Northern Confederation in
1871
- The federal government was able to set national tariffs, control the banking
system and set the direction of German foreign and economic policy. The kings of
Bavaria, Saxony and Wurttemberg retained their own armies
Trying to reconcile unity and division:
- over 60% of the population were Protestant, but Catholicism was strong
especially in south-west Germany and in the Rhineland
- 10% of the Reich’s population were Poles, Danes or French
- Economic and social divisions, between the rich and poor, and between the
industrialising north and west and the predominantly rural south and east
- Prussian dominance:
Prussia possessed 60% of Germany’s population and two-thirds of its
territory. It has 235 out of 397 deputies in the Reichstag. It had 17
seats in the Bundesrat which meant it could veto easily
Prussian king was German Emperor, head of the imperial executive
and civil service and head of the army
Prussian state government – Prussian voters were divided into 3
classes, according to the amount of taxes they paid. The rich
therefore had more electoral power than the poor so the power
remained in conservative hands.
The importance of the Reichstag and the parties:
- Reichstag weaknesses – gave little opportunity for the exercise of democracy
– they could disapprove of the Chancellor but could not dismiss him, whereas
the Reichstag itself could be dismissed at any time and new elections called.
Bismarck was only willing to work with the Reichstag if they accepted his
, proposals or some compromise acceptable to him – or he would dissolve the
Reichstag and call new elections to win backing for his measures.
- Reichstag strengths – Bismarck was forced to negotiate with the Reichstag as
the Kaiserreich needed a vast number of new laws and the government
needed more money, which only the Reichstag could provide. No parliament
in the world was elected on a broader franchise
- Most Germans remained respectful of authority, believing it to be right and
proper that the Emperor, or Chancellor, should rule. There was no
widespread conviction that power should reside in a political party who had
the most seats in the Reichstag
The impact of regional and social divisions:
- Many southern Germans did not like Prussia and Prussian rule – most
southern Germans were Catholics whereas most northern Germans were
Protestants. Bismarck’s kulturkampf made matters worse
- National minorities – Poles, Danes, French – enemies of the state. Thus
Bismarck; outlawed Polish language in education and law courts, and Alsace-
Lorraine became a special region under direct imperial rule with a governor
and Prussian civil servants. The German language was imposed in schools and
local administration. The French who disliked German rule were allowed to
leave.
- Growing industrial development after 1871 increased Germany’s industrial
working class. Many of the proletariat were attracted to socialism
- Bismarck regarded socialists as dangerous revolutionaries and a threat to the
kind of society he wanted to maintain. In 1876 he tried to pass a bill
preventing the publication of socialist propaganda, it was defeated. In May
1878 there was an assassination attempt on the Emperor. Bismarck wrongly
associated this with socialism and tried to push through another bill against
socialism which was defeated by the National Liberals. A second attempt on
the Emperor a week later led Bismarck to criticise the National Liberals for
failing to pass the anti-socialist bill that might have protected the Emperor.
He dissolved the Reichstag. The electorate were deeply shocked by the
assassination attempts, blamed the SPD and the National Liberals, whom
both lost votes in the following elections
- The new Reichstag passed an anti-socialist bill in 1878, supported by
Conservatives and most National Liberals which banned socialist
organisations, including trade unions, forbid socialist meetings and outlawed
socialist publications. However, the law was implemented differently in
different states, and did not prevent SPD members from standing for election
and speaking freely in both the Reichstag and state legislatures. In 1880s
Bismarck tried to move the working classes away from socialism by
introducing various welfare measures such as old age pensions. Many
German workers believed them a sham and SPD support continued to
increase.
, Bismarck’s power:
- Realpolitik – he hoped to achieve conservative ends by means that were
often far from conservative. His methods often brought him into conflict with
Wilhelm I and the Prussian elites. Many distrusted his tactics but most
respected his judgement
- Limitations to Bismarck’s power – the fact that Germany was a federal state
reduced his influence. The Reichstag was a major constraint. His long
absences from Berlin (he liked to spend time on his country estates), and his
poor health reduced his control of day-to-day decision making
- Bismarck needed a parliamentary majority, so he worked with the National
Liberals, the Reichstag’s strongest party for most of the 1870s. The National
Liberals were eager to help him consolidate national unity. A great deal of
useful legislation was passed:
A national currency was introduced
A Reichsbank was created
All internal tariffs were abolished
There was much legal standardisation
- Bismarck did not agree with the National Liberals’ hopes for extension of
parliamentary government and also was irritated by their opposition to some
of his proposals, including the army budget
- The War in Sight crisis – Bismarck was prepared to use nationalism to rally
support. In 1875 he claimed that France was planning a war of revenge
against Germany, through a press campaign. This won him popular support in
Germany, but it was not a great diplomatic success. Britain and Russia
warned Germany about its provocative actions, forcing Bismarck to offer
assurances that Germany was not contemplating war with France.
Demonstrated the influence of the German military on governmental policy,
as well as Bismarck’s use of the press to mount political campaigns. The crisis
weakened the Three Emperors League, an alliance Germany had made with
Russia and Austro-Hungary in 1873, and subsequently encouraged a growing
unease in Europe towards the diplomatic goals of the new German nation
- In the early 1870s Bismarck supported free trade, an essential principle of the
National Liberals. in 1879, he ditched both free trade and the National
Liberals
- Protective tariffs were introduced because the federal government’s revenue
did not cover the growing costs of armaments and administration. To make
up the deficit, supplementary payments were made by individual states.
Bismarck hoped that the new tariffs would ensure that the federal
government was financially independent of the states and the Reichstag. By
the late 1870s many Germans were clamouring for protective tariffs. Thus,
Bismarck could broaden his political support. In the 1878 elections, the
, National Liberals lost 30 seats and Protectionists, made up mostly of
Conservatives and Centre Party members had a majority in the Reichstag
- 1879 tariff bill passed through the Reichstag, imposing duties on imports.
Bismarck was now firmly committed to the Conservatives. Some National
Liberals united with the Progressives, others remained loyal to Bismarck
The Kulturkampf:
- Reasons – in 1864 the papacy condemned every major principle for which
liberals stood, such as democracy and religious liberty. In 1870 the Vatican
council laid down the doctrine of papal infallibility – the pope’s moral
teachings took precedence over that of the state. German Protestants and
liberals were alarmed and feared that militant Catholicism would interfere in
the Reich’s affairs
- Bismarck, a sincere Protestant, viewed Catholics with suspicion. Many of
those who opposed unification, were Catholic. Bismarck saw the (Catholic)
Centre Party’s success in 1871 as a danger to the Empire’s unity
- Anti-Catholic legislation was passed in Prussia, by other state governments
and by the Reichstag. In 1872:
Catholic schools were brought under state supervision
The Reichstag banned Jesuits from Germany
- In 1873, Prussian Minister of Religion and Education introduced the May
Laws:
All priesthood candidates had to attend a secular university before
commencing training
All religious appointments became subject to state approval
- In 1874 obligatory civil marriage was introduced in Prussia
- In 1875 all religious orders, except nursing orders, were dissolved
- Clergy could be fined, prisoned or expelled if they failed to comply with the
legislation
- Failure of the Kulturkampf – attempt to repress Catholicism met with
considerable opposition. Catholic communities fiercely maintained their
religious culture. Bismarck’s hope of destroying the Centre Party backfired:
the Kulturkampf strengthened rather than weakened his opponents. In 1871
the Centre Party won 58 seats; in 1874 it won 91
- End of the Kulturkampf – Bismarck accepted it had failed – it had increased
disunity between the Reich and its Catholic subjects, not removed it.
Negotiations with the Pope led to improved relations between Bismarck and
the Church. Some anti-Catholic measures were repealed. Bismarck sought to
turn a setback to his advantage by winning Centre Party support for his
conservative, protectionist and anti-socialist measures
The appeal to nationalism to achieve unity:
- Parliament introduced policies that sought to create a national reichdeutsche
identity
