SOCIETIES: FACTS & CHALLENGES
LECTURE 1: PREAMBLE - TALKING ABOUT POLITICS
POSITIVE VS NORMATIVE ANALYSIS – DAVID HUME
Positive analysis is descriptive. It answers questions like: “What is?” or “What will happen if…?”
- It is based on facts and cause-and-effect relationships.
- Example: “If we raise the minimum wage, what happens to employment?”
- This is about describing reality as it is, not as we want it to be.
Normative analysis is prescriptive. It answers questions like: “What should be?”
- It involves value judgements — beliefs about what is good, fair, or desirable.
- Example: “Is society better off with a higher minimum wage?”
- Normative statements depend on your values, and it is important to be explicit about them.
CORRELATION VS CAUSATION
- Correlation means two things are related — when one changes, the other tends to change too.
- Causation means one thing directly causes the other to change.
Important: Correlation does not equal causation.
Why not?
1. Confounding variable: A third factor affects both.
Example: Ice cream sales and sweating are correlated, but both are caused by hot weather.
2. Reverse causality: It might be the other way around.
Example: Poverty and low self-esteem are linked — but does poverty cause low self-esteem, or does
low self-esteem cause poverty?
To understand society, we need to find the real causes, not just patterns.
TALKING ABOUT POLICY
When you give policy advice, you need three things:
1. Facts — a good descriptive understanding of how society works.
2. Causal knowledge — knowing what really causes what (not just correlation).
3. A clear normative position — what kind of society do you want? Be honest about it.
Policy is not just science. It mixes facts and values. That is why we must be careful when making
recommendations.
SETTING THE SCENE: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
1
,SOCIETY
WHAT DO WE MEAN BY SOCIETIES?
Societies exist at multiple levels at the same time. This is called a multilevel structure:
- Local: e.g., the city of Antwerp
- Regional: e.g., Flanders
- National: e.g., Belgium (nation state)
- Supranational: e.g., the European Union
- Global: the world as a whole
These levels overlap and interact. For example, you are part of Antwerp, Flanders, Belgium, the EU, and the
world all at once.
THE EUROPEAN PILLAR OF SOCIAL RIGHTS (2017)
The EU used to focus mainly on economic integration. There was no strong social component at first.
That changed in 2017, when EU member countries ratified the European Pillar of Social Rights.
It contains 20 social rights, divided into three categories:
1. Equal opportunities and access to the labour market
— e.g., gender equality, education, active support to
employment
2.
3. Fair working conditions
— e.g., secure and adaptable employment, work-life
balance, health and safety at work
4. Social protection and inclusion
— e.g., minimum income, unemployment benefits, old-age
pensions, healthcare, long-term care, inclusion of people
with disabilities
In 2021, the EU published an action plan to turn these rights into
real policies.
THE THREE BASIC INSTITUTIONS OF A SOCI ETY
People in a society are not isolated individuals. We live, work, and interact together.
Over time, we form basic (social) institutions — stable patterns of how we organise life.
In this course, we focus on three basic institutions:
- The family – where we are born, raised, and learn to live with others
- The firm – where we produce goods and services, and earn a living
- The government – which makes and enforces rules, redistributes resources, and provides
public services
2
,These three are the main actors in the course. Nearly every social issue involves the family, the firm, or the
government — and often all three.
A NOTE ON HUMAN BIOLOGY AND SOCIETY
The slides also briefly mention human evolution.
Why? Because our biology shapes our social arrangements.
Key point:
Over time, the human brain became larger (Homo erectus), but the birth canal did not widen at the same
rate.
As a result, human babies are born early compared to other animals. They are dependent on adults for a
very long time.
This is one reason why the family exists as a basic institution. Humans need long-term care and protection
to survive — and that need is met through family structures.
INSTITUTION 1: THE FAMILY
WHY DO HUMANS FORM FAMILIES?
Families are the first basic institution we study. Humans form families for several essential reasons:
- To create new members – reproduction
- To care for these new members – human babies are dependent for a long time
- To provide mutual assistance and help
- To collaborate and pool resources – food, shelter, money, time
Important: Families are organised in an informal way. There are no formal contracts or written rules, but
there are expectations, norms, and obligations.
The key idea: We survived because we collaborated. Families were the original form of collaboration.
THE COGNITIVE REVOLUTION (CA. 70,000 YEARS AGO)
Around 70,000 years ago, Homo sapiens developed something unique: complex language.
This was a turning point. Language made it possible to:
- Collaborate in larger groups – not just family size
- Express complex ideas
- Create imagined reality – things that exist only in our shared imagination
- Share myths, beliefs, legends
- Develop culture and religion
- Engage in exchange and trade
Without language, you cannot make agreements, explain value, or trust that someone will give you
something later. Language makes society possible beyond the small group.
3
, THE MARKET: A PLACE, NOT AN ACTOR
What is a market?
A market is where members of a society engage in exchange. Usually, sellers offer goods or services, buyers
pay money.
But two important notes from the slides:
1. Exchange is the essential feature, not money.
You can have markets without money (barter, trade, cigarettes in prison). Money just makes it easier.
2. The market is not a basic institution.
The basic institutions are family, firm, and government.
The market is the place where these actors interact.
Firms sell, families buy, governments regulate.
The market itself does not act — people act on the market.
EXAMPLE: THE CIGARETTE MARKET IN A CONCENTRATION CAMP
If This Is a Man by Primo Levi, a survivor of Auschwitz.
In the camp, there was a market for cigarettes.
When the factory that produced cigarettes broke down, supply stopped.
The price of cigarettes skyrocketed.
This shows:
- Markets can emerge anywhere, even in extreme conditions
- Exchange happens with or without official money
- Supply and demand still work, even in a prison camp
It also shows that language and cooperation make exchange possible — even when survival is at stake.
FROM PREHISTORIC CARE TO THE GREAT ENRICHMENT
Romito 2 is the earliest known case of dwarfism in the archaeological record.
- Found in Grotta del Romito, Italy
- Died about 11,000 years ago
- Male, 17–20 years old, 120 cm tall
- Had compromised mobility and limited arm movement
- Could not perform the same tasks as others in his community
Why this matters:
Romito 2 survived into young adulthood. He received care at different stages of his life — from
childhood to death.
This tells us something important about early human societies:
Even in prehistoric times, humans took care of vulnerable members. Cooperation and care are not modern
inventions. They are deeply human.
4
LECTURE 1: PREAMBLE - TALKING ABOUT POLITICS
POSITIVE VS NORMATIVE ANALYSIS – DAVID HUME
Positive analysis is descriptive. It answers questions like: “What is?” or “What will happen if…?”
- It is based on facts and cause-and-effect relationships.
- Example: “If we raise the minimum wage, what happens to employment?”
- This is about describing reality as it is, not as we want it to be.
Normative analysis is prescriptive. It answers questions like: “What should be?”
- It involves value judgements — beliefs about what is good, fair, or desirable.
- Example: “Is society better off with a higher minimum wage?”
- Normative statements depend on your values, and it is important to be explicit about them.
CORRELATION VS CAUSATION
- Correlation means two things are related — when one changes, the other tends to change too.
- Causation means one thing directly causes the other to change.
Important: Correlation does not equal causation.
Why not?
1. Confounding variable: A third factor affects both.
Example: Ice cream sales and sweating are correlated, but both are caused by hot weather.
2. Reverse causality: It might be the other way around.
Example: Poverty and low self-esteem are linked — but does poverty cause low self-esteem, or does
low self-esteem cause poverty?
To understand society, we need to find the real causes, not just patterns.
TALKING ABOUT POLICY
When you give policy advice, you need three things:
1. Facts — a good descriptive understanding of how society works.
2. Causal knowledge — knowing what really causes what (not just correlation).
3. A clear normative position — what kind of society do you want? Be honest about it.
Policy is not just science. It mixes facts and values. That is why we must be careful when making
recommendations.
SETTING THE SCENE: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
1
,SOCIETY
WHAT DO WE MEAN BY SOCIETIES?
Societies exist at multiple levels at the same time. This is called a multilevel structure:
- Local: e.g., the city of Antwerp
- Regional: e.g., Flanders
- National: e.g., Belgium (nation state)
- Supranational: e.g., the European Union
- Global: the world as a whole
These levels overlap and interact. For example, you are part of Antwerp, Flanders, Belgium, the EU, and the
world all at once.
THE EUROPEAN PILLAR OF SOCIAL RIGHTS (2017)
The EU used to focus mainly on economic integration. There was no strong social component at first.
That changed in 2017, when EU member countries ratified the European Pillar of Social Rights.
It contains 20 social rights, divided into three categories:
1. Equal opportunities and access to the labour market
— e.g., gender equality, education, active support to
employment
2.
3. Fair working conditions
— e.g., secure and adaptable employment, work-life
balance, health and safety at work
4. Social protection and inclusion
— e.g., minimum income, unemployment benefits, old-age
pensions, healthcare, long-term care, inclusion of people
with disabilities
In 2021, the EU published an action plan to turn these rights into
real policies.
THE THREE BASIC INSTITUTIONS OF A SOCI ETY
People in a society are not isolated individuals. We live, work, and interact together.
Over time, we form basic (social) institutions — stable patterns of how we organise life.
In this course, we focus on three basic institutions:
- The family – where we are born, raised, and learn to live with others
- The firm – where we produce goods and services, and earn a living
- The government – which makes and enforces rules, redistributes resources, and provides
public services
2
,These three are the main actors in the course. Nearly every social issue involves the family, the firm, or the
government — and often all three.
A NOTE ON HUMAN BIOLOGY AND SOCIETY
The slides also briefly mention human evolution.
Why? Because our biology shapes our social arrangements.
Key point:
Over time, the human brain became larger (Homo erectus), but the birth canal did not widen at the same
rate.
As a result, human babies are born early compared to other animals. They are dependent on adults for a
very long time.
This is one reason why the family exists as a basic institution. Humans need long-term care and protection
to survive — and that need is met through family structures.
INSTITUTION 1: THE FAMILY
WHY DO HUMANS FORM FAMILIES?
Families are the first basic institution we study. Humans form families for several essential reasons:
- To create new members – reproduction
- To care for these new members – human babies are dependent for a long time
- To provide mutual assistance and help
- To collaborate and pool resources – food, shelter, money, time
Important: Families are organised in an informal way. There are no formal contracts or written rules, but
there are expectations, norms, and obligations.
The key idea: We survived because we collaborated. Families were the original form of collaboration.
THE COGNITIVE REVOLUTION (CA. 70,000 YEARS AGO)
Around 70,000 years ago, Homo sapiens developed something unique: complex language.
This was a turning point. Language made it possible to:
- Collaborate in larger groups – not just family size
- Express complex ideas
- Create imagined reality – things that exist only in our shared imagination
- Share myths, beliefs, legends
- Develop culture and religion
- Engage in exchange and trade
Without language, you cannot make agreements, explain value, or trust that someone will give you
something later. Language makes society possible beyond the small group.
3
, THE MARKET: A PLACE, NOT AN ACTOR
What is a market?
A market is where members of a society engage in exchange. Usually, sellers offer goods or services, buyers
pay money.
But two important notes from the slides:
1. Exchange is the essential feature, not money.
You can have markets without money (barter, trade, cigarettes in prison). Money just makes it easier.
2. The market is not a basic institution.
The basic institutions are family, firm, and government.
The market is the place where these actors interact.
Firms sell, families buy, governments regulate.
The market itself does not act — people act on the market.
EXAMPLE: THE CIGARETTE MARKET IN A CONCENTRATION CAMP
If This Is a Man by Primo Levi, a survivor of Auschwitz.
In the camp, there was a market for cigarettes.
When the factory that produced cigarettes broke down, supply stopped.
The price of cigarettes skyrocketed.
This shows:
- Markets can emerge anywhere, even in extreme conditions
- Exchange happens with or without official money
- Supply and demand still work, even in a prison camp
It also shows that language and cooperation make exchange possible — even when survival is at stake.
FROM PREHISTORIC CARE TO THE GREAT ENRICHMENT
Romito 2 is the earliest known case of dwarfism in the archaeological record.
- Found in Grotta del Romito, Italy
- Died about 11,000 years ago
- Male, 17–20 years old, 120 cm tall
- Had compromised mobility and limited arm movement
- Could not perform the same tasks as others in his community
Why this matters:
Romito 2 survived into young adulthood. He received care at different stages of his life — from
childhood to death.
This tells us something important about early human societies:
Even in prehistoric times, humans took care of vulnerable members. Cooperation and care are not modern
inventions. They are deeply human.
4
