Summary: Solidarity and social justice in contemporary societies
Week 1
Knowledge clips
What is the Tragedy of the Commons?
● The Core Logic: Imagine a shared resource, like a pond. If every villager catches just
one fish a day, the fish population stays stable. However, if one person catches an
extra fish for their own profit, they get the full benefit while the "cost" (fewer fish for
tomorrow) is shared by everyone.
● The Tragedy: Since everyone thinks this way, everyone takes more than their share.
This leads to the total depletion of the resource, and eventually, everyone starves.
● Modern Examples: The video connects this to global issues like overfishing,
pollution, climate change, and the overuse of antibiotics.
● The Solution: Humans combat this by creating social contracts, electing
governments, and passing laws to protect the collective good from individual greed.
Social Policy: What is it and why does it matter?
This video defines social policy and explains its vital role in modern welfare states.
● Definition: Social policy is the set of actions, laws, and regulations used by
governments to address social inequalities and manage social risks (like illness,
unemployment, or old age).
● Core Objectives:
○ Solidarity: Ensuring that resources are shared and that people support one
another through collective systems (like taxes and social security).
○ Social Justice: Distributing resources and burdens fairly across the population
to reduce the gap between the rich and poor.
● Who Provides It? While the Welfare State is the primary provider, social policy is
also influenced by markets, NGOs, churches, and families.
● Importance: Social policy matters because it determines the "standard of living" for
citizens. It moves beyond just survival to providing opportunities for education,
housing, and healthcare.
Solidarity and social justice in contemporary societies - Chapter 1
Self-transcending motives: motives that extend beyond the self, such as justice values and
feelings of solidarity (can be contrasted with self-enhancing or egoistic motives).
Solidarity: common identity, suggesting a mutual attachment between individuals in society,
both practically (i.e., depending on each other) and normatively (i.e., what we expect of each
other; see Chap. 3).
Social dilemmas: situations in which short-term self-interests conflict with longer-term
societal interests in such a way that individuals are better off if they do not act cooperatively,
,but everybody is better off if everyone cooperates compared to the situation in which no one
cooperates. If no one cooperates, everyone will be worse off in the end.
● Resource dilemmas (take-some dilemmas): social dilemmas in which a course of
action that offers positive outcomes for the self leads to negative outcomes for the
collective
● Public goods dilemma (give-some dilemmas): social dilemmas in which an action
that results in negative consequences for the self would, if performed by enough
people, lead to positive consequences for the collective.
● Prisoner’s dilemma: social dilemma in which (usually) two players simultaneously
face a choice between cooperating with each other or defecting, where the best
outcome for Player A is the one where they defect and the other cooperates, while the
worst outcome is where they cooperate and the other defects.
Social inequality: the uneven allocation of burdens and valued resources across members of
a society based on their group membership in combination with the undervaluation of these
members of society based on their group membership.
Social justice: considerations of who is deserving of what and how this is to be achieved.
Usually a distinction is made between distributive and procedural justice, but more forms can
be distinguished, such as the scope of justice and justice as recognition (see Chap. 4).
Social policies: the services, facilities, and broader support of social groups through which
welfare states attempt to identify and address social inequalities as well as social risks.
Welfare state: a nation state providing government-protected minimum standards of income,
nutrition, health, housing, and education, guaranteed in the form of citizenship rights.
Eurofound article by Mary McCaughey - Inequalities unmasked: Reality of disparities across
the EU
The article outlines how recent crises, such as the 2008 recession, the COVID-19 pandemic,
and the ongoing cost-of-living crisis, have exposed and deepened structural inequalities
across the European Union. The author categorizes these disparities into four major areas:
1. Gender Inequalities Despite decades of progress, the EU continues to experience
significant gaps. While women have filled two out of three net new jobs over the past twenty
years, they remain heavily overrepresented in low-paying and minimum-wage roles.
● Persistent gaps: A gender pay gap of 13% and an employment gap of over 9%
remain.
● The managerial gap: Female employment is growing fastest in high-paying
managerial jobs, but women in these roles earn 23% less than men. Variable pay
structures (like company shares) are also increasing faster among men, which
threatens to widen the wealth gap.
● Unpaid labour: Women still shoulder the vast majority of housework and caregiving.
When paid and unpaid labour are combined, women work the equivalent of eight
full-time weeks more per year than men.
, 2. Income Inequality The wealth gap is exhibiting contrasting trends across Europe. The
cost-of-living crisis has been particularly harsh on vulnerable demographics, leaving single
parents and women living alone at a high risk of energy poverty. The welfare state is
absolutely essential for mitigating this.
● Contrasting trends: Income inequality is shrinking in the 13 newer Member States
(post-2004) due to income growth among lower earners, but it is actively growing in
the 14 older Member States where the middle class is shrinking.
● Poverty threshold: The percentage of people living below the poverty threshold
increased in two-thirds of EU countries between 2006 and 2021.
● Role of the welfare state: Taxes and social benefits reduce market income
inequalities by an average of 42% across the EU. In countries where welfare
protections have eroded, income inequality has surged.
3. Intergenerational Divides (Young vs. Old) Different age groups have experienced the
recent economic and health crises in vastly different ways.
● Employment and income: Young people suffered the most job losses during the
pandemic, while the share of older workers (50+) has steadily grown since 2007.
Incomes have grown the most for populations aged 60 and over since 2008, largely
because pensions provide a stable income source and an increasing share of public
benefits is directed toward this demographic.
● Housing crisis: Young people are severely impacted by a housing crisis. Between
2010 and 2019, the percentage of 30- to 39-year-olds who rent increased from 38% to
45%. During this same period, housing costs surged by 23% for renters but only by
8% for homeowners (who are predominantly over the age of 40).
4. Rural–Urban Divides The socio-economic gap between rural and urban areas has grown
by almost 20% over the last ten years, with urban areas offering significantly higher median
incomes and employment levels.
● Educational and digital divides: 55% of city residents aged 25–34 have tertiary
education, compared to only 34% of those in rural areas. City dwellers also benefit
from better digital skills and broadband infrastructure.
● Rural advantages: However, rural living does provide some distinct advantages.
Rural residents are less burdened by heavy housing costs, can better afford to heat
their homes, and face far lower rates of pollution, crime, and vandalism.
Starmans, Sheskin, & Bloom, 2017 - Why people prefer unequal societies
This paper challenges the widespread assumption that human beings have an innate hatred for
economic inequality. The core argument of the authors is that people are not actually bothered
by economic inequality itself; rather, they are bothered by economic unfairness.
1. The Current Context of Inequality The paper begins by acknowledging that we live in
an era of extreme economic inequality and public outrage. Globally, the top 1% owns 50% of
Week 1
Knowledge clips
What is the Tragedy of the Commons?
● The Core Logic: Imagine a shared resource, like a pond. If every villager catches just
one fish a day, the fish population stays stable. However, if one person catches an
extra fish for their own profit, they get the full benefit while the "cost" (fewer fish for
tomorrow) is shared by everyone.
● The Tragedy: Since everyone thinks this way, everyone takes more than their share.
This leads to the total depletion of the resource, and eventually, everyone starves.
● Modern Examples: The video connects this to global issues like overfishing,
pollution, climate change, and the overuse of antibiotics.
● The Solution: Humans combat this by creating social contracts, electing
governments, and passing laws to protect the collective good from individual greed.
Social Policy: What is it and why does it matter?
This video defines social policy and explains its vital role in modern welfare states.
● Definition: Social policy is the set of actions, laws, and regulations used by
governments to address social inequalities and manage social risks (like illness,
unemployment, or old age).
● Core Objectives:
○ Solidarity: Ensuring that resources are shared and that people support one
another through collective systems (like taxes and social security).
○ Social Justice: Distributing resources and burdens fairly across the population
to reduce the gap between the rich and poor.
● Who Provides It? While the Welfare State is the primary provider, social policy is
also influenced by markets, NGOs, churches, and families.
● Importance: Social policy matters because it determines the "standard of living" for
citizens. It moves beyond just survival to providing opportunities for education,
housing, and healthcare.
Solidarity and social justice in contemporary societies - Chapter 1
Self-transcending motives: motives that extend beyond the self, such as justice values and
feelings of solidarity (can be contrasted with self-enhancing or egoistic motives).
Solidarity: common identity, suggesting a mutual attachment between individuals in society,
both practically (i.e., depending on each other) and normatively (i.e., what we expect of each
other; see Chap. 3).
Social dilemmas: situations in which short-term self-interests conflict with longer-term
societal interests in such a way that individuals are better off if they do not act cooperatively,
,but everybody is better off if everyone cooperates compared to the situation in which no one
cooperates. If no one cooperates, everyone will be worse off in the end.
● Resource dilemmas (take-some dilemmas): social dilemmas in which a course of
action that offers positive outcomes for the self leads to negative outcomes for the
collective
● Public goods dilemma (give-some dilemmas): social dilemmas in which an action
that results in negative consequences for the self would, if performed by enough
people, lead to positive consequences for the collective.
● Prisoner’s dilemma: social dilemma in which (usually) two players simultaneously
face a choice between cooperating with each other or defecting, where the best
outcome for Player A is the one where they defect and the other cooperates, while the
worst outcome is where they cooperate and the other defects.
Social inequality: the uneven allocation of burdens and valued resources across members of
a society based on their group membership in combination with the undervaluation of these
members of society based on their group membership.
Social justice: considerations of who is deserving of what and how this is to be achieved.
Usually a distinction is made between distributive and procedural justice, but more forms can
be distinguished, such as the scope of justice and justice as recognition (see Chap. 4).
Social policies: the services, facilities, and broader support of social groups through which
welfare states attempt to identify and address social inequalities as well as social risks.
Welfare state: a nation state providing government-protected minimum standards of income,
nutrition, health, housing, and education, guaranteed in the form of citizenship rights.
Eurofound article by Mary McCaughey - Inequalities unmasked: Reality of disparities across
the EU
The article outlines how recent crises, such as the 2008 recession, the COVID-19 pandemic,
and the ongoing cost-of-living crisis, have exposed and deepened structural inequalities
across the European Union. The author categorizes these disparities into four major areas:
1. Gender Inequalities Despite decades of progress, the EU continues to experience
significant gaps. While women have filled two out of three net new jobs over the past twenty
years, they remain heavily overrepresented in low-paying and minimum-wage roles.
● Persistent gaps: A gender pay gap of 13% and an employment gap of over 9%
remain.
● The managerial gap: Female employment is growing fastest in high-paying
managerial jobs, but women in these roles earn 23% less than men. Variable pay
structures (like company shares) are also increasing faster among men, which
threatens to widen the wealth gap.
● Unpaid labour: Women still shoulder the vast majority of housework and caregiving.
When paid and unpaid labour are combined, women work the equivalent of eight
full-time weeks more per year than men.
, 2. Income Inequality The wealth gap is exhibiting contrasting trends across Europe. The
cost-of-living crisis has been particularly harsh on vulnerable demographics, leaving single
parents and women living alone at a high risk of energy poverty. The welfare state is
absolutely essential for mitigating this.
● Contrasting trends: Income inequality is shrinking in the 13 newer Member States
(post-2004) due to income growth among lower earners, but it is actively growing in
the 14 older Member States where the middle class is shrinking.
● Poverty threshold: The percentage of people living below the poverty threshold
increased in two-thirds of EU countries between 2006 and 2021.
● Role of the welfare state: Taxes and social benefits reduce market income
inequalities by an average of 42% across the EU. In countries where welfare
protections have eroded, income inequality has surged.
3. Intergenerational Divides (Young vs. Old) Different age groups have experienced the
recent economic and health crises in vastly different ways.
● Employment and income: Young people suffered the most job losses during the
pandemic, while the share of older workers (50+) has steadily grown since 2007.
Incomes have grown the most for populations aged 60 and over since 2008, largely
because pensions provide a stable income source and an increasing share of public
benefits is directed toward this demographic.
● Housing crisis: Young people are severely impacted by a housing crisis. Between
2010 and 2019, the percentage of 30- to 39-year-olds who rent increased from 38% to
45%. During this same period, housing costs surged by 23% for renters but only by
8% for homeowners (who are predominantly over the age of 40).
4. Rural–Urban Divides The socio-economic gap between rural and urban areas has grown
by almost 20% over the last ten years, with urban areas offering significantly higher median
incomes and employment levels.
● Educational and digital divides: 55% of city residents aged 25–34 have tertiary
education, compared to only 34% of those in rural areas. City dwellers also benefit
from better digital skills and broadband infrastructure.
● Rural advantages: However, rural living does provide some distinct advantages.
Rural residents are less burdened by heavy housing costs, can better afford to heat
their homes, and face far lower rates of pollution, crime, and vandalism.
Starmans, Sheskin, & Bloom, 2017 - Why people prefer unequal societies
This paper challenges the widespread assumption that human beings have an innate hatred for
economic inequality. The core argument of the authors is that people are not actually bothered
by economic inequality itself; rather, they are bothered by economic unfairness.
1. The Current Context of Inequality The paper begins by acknowledging that we live in
an era of extreme economic inequality and public outrage. Globally, the top 1% owns 50% of
