pathophysiology final exam study guide Exam comprehensive questions fully
solved & updated (Latest Update 2026) UPDATE!!
Prokaryotes - (answer)No distinct nucleus (single, circular chromosome), no nuclear membrane, lack
histones and organelles; examples include cyanobacteria, bacteria, and rickettsiae.
Eukaryotes - (answer)Complex cellular organization with membrane-bound organelles and a well-
defined nucleus containing several chromosomes; examples include higher animals, plants, fungi,
protozoa, and algae.
Differences between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes - Enzyme Content - (answer)Prokaryotes have
enzymes free in cytoplasm or membrane-bound, while Eukaryotes have enzymes compartmentalized in
organelles.
Differences between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes - Transport - (answer)Prokaryotes use passive
transport via porins (if Gram-) with no vesicles, while Eukaryotes utilize complex transport mechanisms
including endocytosis.
Differences between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes - Protein Synthesis - (answer)Prokaryotes have 70S
ribosomes with coupled transcription/translation, while Eukaryotes have 80S ribosomes with separated
processes.
Cellular Components - (answer)Includes cell (plasma) membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and DNA.
Mitochondria - (answer)Organelles responsible for ATP production via oxidative phosphorylation.
Lysosomes - (answer)Organelles that digest old cell parts.
Ribosomes - (answer)Organelles that make proteins.
Golgi - (answer)Organelles that package proteins.
,pathophysiology final exam study guide Exam comprehensive questions fully
solved & updated (Latest Update 2026) UPDATE!!
Peroxisomes - (answer)Organelles that detoxify fatty acids and alcohol.
Cellular Respiration - (answer)The process of breaking down glucose and O2 into ATP, CO2, and H2O.
Glycolysis - (answer)The breakdown of sugar (glucose) in the cytoplasm, yielding 2 ATP per 1 glucose.
Krebs Cycle - (answer)Occurs inside the mitochondria, making energy carriers and transferring energy
from broken down molecules to be used in the electron transport chain for ATP production.
Electron Transport Chain - (answer)Uses oxygen to make ATP, which is the energy the cell can use.
Passive Transport - (answer)Movement of substances down a concentration gradient without the need
for energy.
Active Transport - (answer)Movement of substances against a concentration gradient that requires ATP.
Na+/K+ Pump - (answer)A mechanism that moves 3 Na⁺ out and 2 K⁺ in, powered by ATP, maintaining
electrical charge for nerve muscle function, controlling cell volume, and balancing sodium and water
inside the cell.
Hypoxia - (answer)Lack of sufficient O2 in cells, often resulting from decreased blood flow (ischemia).
Anoxia - (answer)Total absence of oxygen in cells due to obstruction.
Ischemia-reperfusion injury - (answer)Cell injury and death caused by the restoration of blood flow and
oxygen, leading to oxidative stress and increased intracellular calcium concentration.
Oxidative Stress - (answer)Damage caused by free radicals, leading to inflammation and cell death.
, pathophysiology final exam study guide Exam comprehensive questions fully
solved & updated (Latest Update 2026) UPDATE!!
Inflammation in Hypoxic Conditions - (answer)Low O2 levels trigger or worsen inflammation, which can
lead to conditions such as pulmonary edema, cancer, organ transplantation, and adipose tissue issues.
Adipose Tissue - (answer)A type of connective tissue that stores fat.
Hypoxia in Inflammatory Conditions - (answer)Existing inflammation causing low O2.
Acute Lung Injury - (answer)A condition characterized by sudden damage to the lungs.
Colitis - (answer)Inflammation of the inner lining of the colon.
Infections with pathogens - (answer)Diseases caused by microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses.
Cell injury - (answer)Caused by hypoxia, chemicals, infections, genetics.
Free radicals - (answer)Unstable molecules that damage cells.
Atrophy - (answer)Decrease in cell size/shrinkage.
Hypertrophy - (answer)Increase in cell size leading to an increase in organ size.
Hyperplasia - (answer)Increase in number of cells and increased rate of cellular division (mitosis).
Dysplasia - (answer)Abnormal changes in size, shape, organization of mature cells, reversible if trigger
stimulus is removed.
solved & updated (Latest Update 2026) UPDATE!!
Prokaryotes - (answer)No distinct nucleus (single, circular chromosome), no nuclear membrane, lack
histones and organelles; examples include cyanobacteria, bacteria, and rickettsiae.
Eukaryotes - (answer)Complex cellular organization with membrane-bound organelles and a well-
defined nucleus containing several chromosomes; examples include higher animals, plants, fungi,
protozoa, and algae.
Differences between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes - Enzyme Content - (answer)Prokaryotes have
enzymes free in cytoplasm or membrane-bound, while Eukaryotes have enzymes compartmentalized in
organelles.
Differences between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes - Transport - (answer)Prokaryotes use passive
transport via porins (if Gram-) with no vesicles, while Eukaryotes utilize complex transport mechanisms
including endocytosis.
Differences between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes - Protein Synthesis - (answer)Prokaryotes have 70S
ribosomes with coupled transcription/translation, while Eukaryotes have 80S ribosomes with separated
processes.
Cellular Components - (answer)Includes cell (plasma) membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and DNA.
Mitochondria - (answer)Organelles responsible for ATP production via oxidative phosphorylation.
Lysosomes - (answer)Organelles that digest old cell parts.
Ribosomes - (answer)Organelles that make proteins.
Golgi - (answer)Organelles that package proteins.
,pathophysiology final exam study guide Exam comprehensive questions fully
solved & updated (Latest Update 2026) UPDATE!!
Peroxisomes - (answer)Organelles that detoxify fatty acids and alcohol.
Cellular Respiration - (answer)The process of breaking down glucose and O2 into ATP, CO2, and H2O.
Glycolysis - (answer)The breakdown of sugar (glucose) in the cytoplasm, yielding 2 ATP per 1 glucose.
Krebs Cycle - (answer)Occurs inside the mitochondria, making energy carriers and transferring energy
from broken down molecules to be used in the electron transport chain for ATP production.
Electron Transport Chain - (answer)Uses oxygen to make ATP, which is the energy the cell can use.
Passive Transport - (answer)Movement of substances down a concentration gradient without the need
for energy.
Active Transport - (answer)Movement of substances against a concentration gradient that requires ATP.
Na+/K+ Pump - (answer)A mechanism that moves 3 Na⁺ out and 2 K⁺ in, powered by ATP, maintaining
electrical charge for nerve muscle function, controlling cell volume, and balancing sodium and water
inside the cell.
Hypoxia - (answer)Lack of sufficient O2 in cells, often resulting from decreased blood flow (ischemia).
Anoxia - (answer)Total absence of oxygen in cells due to obstruction.
Ischemia-reperfusion injury - (answer)Cell injury and death caused by the restoration of blood flow and
oxygen, leading to oxidative stress and increased intracellular calcium concentration.
Oxidative Stress - (answer)Damage caused by free radicals, leading to inflammation and cell death.
, pathophysiology final exam study guide Exam comprehensive questions fully
solved & updated (Latest Update 2026) UPDATE!!
Inflammation in Hypoxic Conditions - (answer)Low O2 levels trigger or worsen inflammation, which can
lead to conditions such as pulmonary edema, cancer, organ transplantation, and adipose tissue issues.
Adipose Tissue - (answer)A type of connective tissue that stores fat.
Hypoxia in Inflammatory Conditions - (answer)Existing inflammation causing low O2.
Acute Lung Injury - (answer)A condition characterized by sudden damage to the lungs.
Colitis - (answer)Inflammation of the inner lining of the colon.
Infections with pathogens - (answer)Diseases caused by microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses.
Cell injury - (answer)Caused by hypoxia, chemicals, infections, genetics.
Free radicals - (answer)Unstable molecules that damage cells.
Atrophy - (answer)Decrease in cell size/shrinkage.
Hypertrophy - (answer)Increase in cell size leading to an increase in organ size.
Hyperplasia - (answer)Increase in number of cells and increased rate of cellular division (mitosis).
Dysplasia - (answer)Abnormal changes in size, shape, organization of mature cells, reversible if trigger
stimulus is removed.
