Judicial protection of the European Union
INHOUDSOPGAVE
INTRODUCTION CLASS ....................................................................................................................................4
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE JUDICIAL ARCHITECTURE OF THE EU.....................................................................5
HOW TO ACCESS EU LAW SOURCES AND HOW TO READ A CASE OF CJEU? ....................................................... 8
JUDICIAL ARCHITECTURE OF THE EU .............................................................................................................. 13
The role of the CJEU........................................................................................................................................... 13
Legal framework ............................................................................................................................................... 14
The evolution of the CJEU architecture ............................................................................................................. 15
Composition, appointment, and tenure of the CJEU members ......................................................................... 17
Intro .............................................................................................................................................................. 17
CJ vs GC ......................................................................................................................................................... 18
The advocate General ................................................................................................................................... 18
The importance of being… a CJEU member .................................................................................................. 19
Requirements and appointment procedure ................................................................................................. 19
Focus on Panel 255 ....................................................................................................................................... 21
Valencius case (C-119/23)............................................................................................................................. 22
Lemmer’s & Kappé’s blogpost ...................................................................................................................... 23
Organizational aspects of the Court of Justice and the General Court .............................................................. 24
Jurisdiction and allocation of competences: an overview ................................................................................. 25
EU LAW BEFORE DOMESTIC COURTS ............................................................................................................. 27
Primacy and direct effect, today ....................................................................................................................... 27
Primacy ......................................................................................................................................................... 27
Direct effect .................................................................................................................................................. 28
Direct effect in horizontal relationships ....................................................................................................... 31
Direct effect vs Direct applicability ............................................................................................................... 32
The ‘daughter’ of primacy and direct effect: disapplication ......................................................................... 33
Consistent interpretation ............................................................................................................................. 36
National procedural autonomy and its limits .................................................................................................... 38
Rewe (1976) (§5) .......................................................................................................................................... 38
The Randstad case (2021) ............................................................................................................................. 40
State liability ..................................................................................................................................................... 41
NI II-case: Direct effect & disapplication ........................................................................................................ 45
Köbler-case ................................................................................................................................................... 47
Commision v. Spain ....................................................................................................................................... 47
Getin Noble Bank .......................................................................................................................................... 50
Kubera .......................................................................................................................................................... 51
Preliminary reference procedure .................................................................................................................. 52
Introduction: rationale(s) and nature ................................................................................................................ 54
, What questions can be referred? ...................................................................................................................... 56
Which bodies may refer? ................................................................................................................................... 56
When ................................................................................................................................................................. 59
When and how to refer? ................................................................................................................................... 61
Procedural aspects before the CJEU: an introduction ....................................................................................... 64
The..................................................................................................................................................................... 66
Focus on the (sometime ‘tense’) relationships with national supreme/constitutional courts........................... 67
Infringement procedure ................................................................................................................................ 68
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 68
Who can act?..................................................................................................................................................... 69
Which breaches of EU law? ............................................................................................................................... 71
The stages of the procedure .............................................................................................................................. 72
The legal effects of the judgement of the Court finding an infringement ......................................................... 74
Sanctions and enforcement of the judgement .................................................................................................. 75
Infringement procedure in figures ..................................................................................................................... 77
Commission v. France (C-416/17)...................................................................................................................... 78
Commission v. Poland ....................................................................................................................................... 80
Action for annulment .................................................................................................................................... 81
Introduction: function and essential elements .................................................................................................. 81
Jurisdiction: where to litigate? .......................................................................................................................... 82
Challengeable acts: what acts can be targeted?............................................................................................... 83
Who can act?..................................................................................................................................................... 84
Grounds for annulment: for what reasons? ...................................................................................................... 87
Effects of the ruling ........................................................................................................................................... 87
Specific elements of the procedure ................................................................................................................... 88
Sharpston v. Council and Representatives of the Governments; Case T-550/20 ............................................. 89
Nicoventures Trading & Others v. Commission (C-731/23P), judgement of 18 December 2025...................... 90
Commission & Council v. Carreras Sequeros and Others; Grand Chamber 8 September 2020 ........................ 93
Essential elements of the procedure before the CJEU – how a case goes through the EU Courts (guest lecture)
..................................................................................................................................................................... 96
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 96
General stages of the procedure ....................................................................................................................... 96
Special issues – intervention.............................................................................................................................. 97
Recent judicial reforms ...................................................................................................................................... 98
Plea of illegality and action for failure to act ................................................................................................. 99
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 99
1
, Plea of illegality ................................................................................................................................................. 99
Legal basis and general description .............................................................................................................. 99
Which acts are concerned?......................................................................................................................... 100
Which violations?........................................................................................................................................ 101
Who can raise a plea of illegality? .............................................................................................................. 101
Where can it be raised? .............................................................................................................................. 101
Effects of the CJEU’s decision to accept the objection of illegality ............................................................. 102
Action for failure to act ................................................................................................................................... 102
Legal basis and general description ............................................................................................................ 102
Substantive aspects of the procedure: What? = IMPORTANT (!) ............................................................... 103
Substantive aspects of the procedure: Who can act? ................................................................................ 104
Procedural aspects: administrative stage and judicial stage ...................................................................... 105
Jurisdiction: Which is the competent court? .............................................................................................. 106
Effects of the judgment declaring a failure to act....................................................................................... 106
A recent example: The «wannabe» Parliament v Commission => not seen in class .................................. 107
Action for damages and Opinions ............................................................................................................... 108
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................... 108
Action for damages against the EU-institutions for non-contractual liability ................................................ 108
Legal basis and general description ............................................................................................................ 108
Notion of Union non-contractual liability ................................................................................................... 109
Relationship with other actions and autonomous nature .......................................................................... 110
Who can bring the action? .......................................................................................................................... 110
Substantive requirements........................................................................................................................... 111
Procedural conditions ................................................................................................................................. 113
Effects of the judgment .............................................................................................................................. 113
Opinions .......................................................................................................................................................... 114
Legal basis and general description ............................................................................................................ 114
About what? On the notion of ‘agreement envisaged’ .............................................................................. 114
About what? In practice.............................................................................................................................. 115
Who can submit a request? ........................................................................................................................ 115
Specific elements of the procedure ............................................................................................................ 115
European Parliament v. Commission (5 september 2023) ............................................................................ 116
Leda Advertising L.t.d. (20 September 2016) ............................................................................................... 117
Special forms of procedure, interim measures, appeals and review procedure ........................................... 118
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................... 118
Interim measures (before the CJEU) ................................................................................................................ 119
Legal basis and general description ............................................................................................................ 119
Which is the competent court? .................................................................................................................. 120
Who can ask for interim measures? ........................................................................................................... 121
Substantive conditions................................................................................................................................ 121
Specific elements of the procedure ............................................................................................................ 122
Effects of an order for interim measures .................................................................................................... 122
Appeals ............................................................................................................................................................ 123
Legal basis and general description ............................................................................................................ 123
Which acts are concerned?......................................................................................................................... 123
Which grounds can be invoked to justify an appeal? ................................................................................. 124
Who can act? .............................................................................................................................................. 124
Specific elements of the procedure ............................................................................................................ 124
Effects of a judgment on appeal ................................................................................................................. 125
2
, Review procedure ............................................................................................................................................ 126
Legal basis and general description ............................................................................................................ 126
When and how a review can be triggered .................................................................................................. 126
Legal effects ................................................................................................................................................ 127
Dyson Ltd and Others v. European Commission .......................................................................................... 127
Order of the President of the General Court 1 July 2019 in case Carles Puigdemont v. Antoni Comin .......... 130
Livio Missir Mamachi di Lusigano v. European Commission 10 September 2015 .......................................... 131
Judicial protection of fundamental social rights .......................................................................................... 132
The Charter and its legal value ........................................................................................................................ 132
Prequel: The long and winding HR road of the EU...................................................................................... 132
The Pintasilgo and Simitis Reports and the Cologne’s Mandate in a nutshell ............................................ 133
Legal value .................................................................................................................................................. 133
Did it work? ................................................................................................................................................. 134
The Charter’s structure ............................................................................................................................... 134
The................................................................................................................................................................... 134
Title VII: General provisions governing the interpretation and application of the Charter ........................ 134
The ‘rights’-‘principles’ divide in theory...................................................................................................... 135
The ‘rights’-‘principles’ divide in practice ................................................................................................... 135
The ‘rights’- ‘principles’ divide: to conclude ............................................................................................... 137
The scope of application: Article 51 and its limits in the CJEU’s case law ....................................................... 137
The Charter: field of application ................................................................................................................. 137
The material scope of application............................................................................................................... 137
The interpretation of the Charter: the issue of direct effect ............................................................................ 138
The personal scope of application: Can the Charter apply to individuals? ................................................. 138
Horizontal direct effect of the Charter ....................................................................................................... 139
Recent developments about the so-called ‘Mangold trick’ ........................................................................ 140
Judicial enforcement of EU values in the case-law of the CJEU (guestlecture) .............................................. 141
Outline: Article 2 TEU values in the CJEU’s case-law ....................................................................................... 141
Justiciability of EU values beyond the rule of law............................................................................................ 144
Mock exam ................................................................................................................................................. 149
3
, INTRODUCTION CLASS (see pp)
GENERAL AND PRACTICAL INFORMATION
Morning class: theory – afternoon class: presentations (shorter)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
In-depth understanding & enhancing a variety of students’ skills
TEACHING METHODS
Lectures and seminars + guest lectures + case-study presentations
ð All students are expected to read in advance the assigned case law (mandatory readings in
Toledo)
How to study this course?
- Before class
o Mandatory reading: cases and articles related to some points going to be discussed
in class
o Non-mandatory reading: if you are interested in knowing more
- Morning class: detailed lesson on how to study a e.g. preliminary procedure (e.g. opinion,
rationale, …)
o List of contents come with the presentation (e.g. history of PL proceeding, who can
stary a PL proceeding,…)
o These are the most important topics to study
- Afternoon class: presentation of topic seen in morning class
CALENDAR
(see pp)
ASSESSMENT METHODS
Cases kennen!! à NOT only the basis
- Central facts
- Main legal issues à not all prejudicial questions are equally relevant
- Is it a development? And in which direction?
- Practical consequences?
- Does it create theoretical ambiguities?
Exam:
- Two open questions: combination theory and application
- Limited open book: only official documents (legislation, case law, NO notes, NO ppts, NO
literature or doctrine) + parts of judgements and legislation are allowed
4
, AN INTRODUCTION TO THE JUDICIAL ARCHITECTURE OF THE EU
Why do we need a system of judicial protection in the EU legal order?
- (1) The basic reason: EU is based on the value of the rule of law à public power is subject to
scrutiny à if violation there should be a remedy à separation of powers: not in the same way
/ categories as on the national level à but public power should still be controlled
o Behind the check and balances there is one of the principle values on which EU states
are based upon: rule of law
o The exercise of public power should be subject to control – the power is not unlimited,
and it should be based on a law
o References to the rule of law?
§ Art. 2 TEU (value of the rule of law)
- (2 + 3) What did the CJEU do?
o We need a traditional branch to avoid that EU law is interpreted and applied
differently in EU MS’s
o Check whether MS’s comply with EU law (enforcement)
o But there is something more: through procedures, the CoJ does not only clarify the
literal meaning of the provisions of EU law, but also the legal effects of these provisions
+ elaborated many of the constitutional provisions of the legal order = tool through
which the CoJ has shaped the legal order (EU level and national level) = most important
procedure
§ Development of the premium ruling reference procedure = bridge that
connects the national courts and the CoJ = based on cooperation, dialogue,
mutual respect of the prerogatives and powers
§ Not just about the protection of individual rights, but also a function in the
shape of the EU law
- (4) The history of liberty of rights, is the history of judicial enforcement
o Without judicial protection, we don’t have rights
o This goes back to the Roman law: EU rights need to have a system of enforcement
WARM UP
The judicial branch of government of the EU is quite unique because the European Union is itself a
quite unique legal construct
The EU is NOT a State nor an ‘ordinary’ international organization – Why? When?
- Sui generis
- When was the distinction between a state and an IO made?
o Van Gend & Loos (1963): import duties on chemical products from Germany to the
Netherlands – direct effect principle
§ = some (& most) provisions of the treaties can be enforced directly before
national judges
o Costa t. ENEL: the basic idea is that when we have an incompatibility between EU and
national law, the solution is not laid down in national legislation, but EU law prevails
- Why does the EU differ from other legal orders?
o EU = supranational legal order
§ MS gave some of their sovereign powers to the EU
o EU = autonomous
§ does not depend on the validity of the national legal systems
o CJEU (van gend en loos): concept of direct effect: the subject of the EU legal order are
also individuals living in Europe and not just citizen of the states
5
,Opinion 2/13: The founding treaties of the EU, unlike ordinary international treaties, established a
new legal order
- = opinion on the accession of the EU to the convention of human rights (since this is not a
binding form of primary law) – how do we solve this?
o Possibility to ask an opinion to the CJEU (art 218, § 11 TFEU): limited to the
compatibility of draft international agreement that the EU wishes to conclude with EU
primary law
o Hierarchy of sources of EU law:
§ Primary law: treaties and charters
§ International agreements concluded by the EU
• These agreements respect primary law
• Secondary law shall respect those agreements
§ Secondary law: EU legislations, directives, regulations, decisions
o The opinion was negative for several years
o The draft agreement was not compatible with the essential characteristics of
the EU
o They had to specify which characteristics where not compatible:
§ Possessing its own institutions,
§ For the benefit of which the Member States (MSs) have limited their
sovereign rights, in ever wider fields,
§ The subjects of which comprise not only MSs but also their nationals
(Para 157)
§ Autonomous vis-à-vis the laws of the MSs and international law (Para
170)
§ Specific characteristics (Para. 161 ff.)
o In the last few years: in the process of restarting the session: a new draft agreement
§ There is a political will
à Court of Justice of the EU is not like other international courts, it resembles national courts more
closely than any other international court
THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE JUDICIAL SYSTEM OF THE EU
Composite/multilevel judicial architecture:
I) Court of Justice of the EU (CJEU) comprises:
= one of the institutions of the EU (art 13 TEU): comprises different bodies
- The Court of Justice: 1 judge per MS; 11 Advocates General
o Difference between judges and AG? AG: gives opinions to the judges
o What is the connection with the opinions of art 218 TFEU? NO connection, two
different acts; DO NOT CONFUSE:
§ Opinion of art. 218 TFEU
§ Opinion of AG
§ Opinion of art. 288 TFEU adopted by the political institutions
- The General Court: at least 1 per MS à today: 2 judges per MS
o Why has the general court been introduced? Rationale?
§ Workload: ‘the CJ has been victim of its own success’ à the CJ became
increasingly feasible as an ally for national courts, because the competences
of the EU have been extended à new legislation and cases
§ Specialization of competences à general court became the first instance
court to analyze the facts
- And, specialized courts, if any (we don’t have any now – but it is possible under treaty)
o Used in the past to establish a civil servant court, but those competences were
reintegrated in the general court
6
,The CJEU «shall ensure that in the interpretation and application of the Treaties the law is observed».
(Art. 19 (1) TEU)
- Why is this necessary? Idea: to avoid the nationalization of EU law (because it is a
phenomenon that the adopted rule is impacted by national culture, law etc.)
- Why is that important? Equality of MS = constitutional principle (art 4 TEU) à ensures that all
MS apply EU law, because otherwise some have advantages against the others
- How make sure that the equality is ensured?
o Infringement procedure: EC oversees the correct application by the MS
§ = centralized system of application
o Preliminary ruling
§ Ensuring correct interpretation
§ = system of decentralized enforcement: before national court, which can refer
to CJEU
II) Art. 19 (1) (2) TEU: «Member States shall provide remedies sufficient to ensure effective legal
protection in the fields covered by Union law»
- Does this mean that the EU has a competence in organizing the national judicial systems? NO:
o MS have the competence to organize it by themselves
o However: when national judges apply EU law, they are functionally EU judges, NOT
legally = European mandate of national courts
- Within the scope of application of EU law, functionally, national judges shall be considered
‘functional EU judges’
o ‘Ordinary Union courts’: EU law is applied, first and foremost, by national judges and
national authorities
Art. 4(2) TEU: «The Union shall respect the equality of Member States before the Treaties as well as
their national identities, inherent in their fundamental structures, political and constitutional,
inclusive of regional and local self-government. »
- Respect of national identities means to also respect the judicial systems of the ms
- Huge BUT: in the organization of the judicial system, they have to ensure that the national
judges can perform their European mandate: to apply EU law, to disapply national law
incompatible with EU law, refer to CJEU when in doubt, independent courts
EU LAW BEFORE NATIONAL COURTS
Before national courts, the substantive protection is guaranteed by the combination of the ‘structural
principles’ of the EU legal order:
- Primacy + direct effect → disapplication
- Primacy + indirect effect → consistent interpretation
- State liability (Joined Cases C-6 and C-9/90, Francovich; Joined Cases C-46 and C-48/93,
Brasserie du Pêcheur; Case C-224/21, Köbler)
Triangular relationship:
- Preliminary reference to the ECJ (Article 267 TFEU)
- Referral to the MS’s Constitutional Court
à essential to enforce EU law before national judges
! all these structural principles are intertwined before national courts à easy position of national
judges: to national constitutional court or to CJEU?
7
,HOW TO ACCESS EU LAW SOURCES AND HOW TO READ A CASE OF CJEU?
How to find EU law sources and how to read a case of CJEU?
Reminder: what are the EU treaties currently in force?
- Treaty on European Union (TEU)
- Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU)
- Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union
Where to find them?
- This is the main website to find EU law sources
- EUR-lex (the Holy Grail for EU Lawyers!): http://eur-lex.europa.eu/collection/eu-
law/treaties.html?locale=en
Chronological overview: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/collection/eu-law/treaties/treaties-overview.html
- Treaty establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (1951)
- Treaty establishing the European Economic Community (1957)
- Treaty establishing the European Atomic Energy Community (1957)
- Single European Act (1986)
- Treaty on European Union/Treaty of Maastricht (1992) (newly created)
- Treaty establishing the European Community (change of EEC to EC)
- Treaty of Amsterdam (1997) (changes in existing TEC and TEU)
- Treaty of Nice (2001) (changes in existing TEC and TEU + non-binding Charter)
- (failed) Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe (2004)
- Treaty of Lisbon (changes in existing TEC (now TFEU) and TEU + binding Charter)
= overview of primary law that show how treaties have been modified and amended over the years
See table of conversion on Toledo!
How to find EU secondary law?
Reminder: what is EU secondary law?
- Often referred as “derived” Union acts: acts adopted on the basis of the treaties
Where to find them?
- EUR-lex
o ✓Legal acts: Legal acts - EUR-Lex
§ = mainly regulation directly applicable to ms
o ✓International agreements: International agreements - EUR-Lex
§ à need to be transposed into national legislation
o ✓ Note that there is also the ‘C’ series of the Official Journal (OJ) consisting of
resolutions, recommendations, guidelines, opinions, information, preparatory acts,
notices, announcements
§ = non-binding acts
How to read EU secondary law?
Directive 2017/1371 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 July 2017 on the fight
against fraud to the Union’s financial interests by means of criminal law: https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1600352286284&uri=CELEX:32017L1371
8
, There are many ways of reading this law, depending on what is your aim, but the main important
aspect lies in the questions:
- What is the legal basis and where can you find it?
o The competences to regulate a certain matter, it does not merely confer the
competences to the Union, but also specifies the procedure on how the EU can
exercise a specific competence
o Art 83(2) TFEU
- What is the intention of the Union legislator and where can you find it?
o In the first articles of the measure you can find to measure, scope, …
o ! recitals
o ≠ non-binding, but can be invoked to understand
§ Help in understanding how to interpret the act
- What is the subject matter of the Directive?
o In the first part of each Act you find this article, this is the referral to the legal basis
How to find and read a case of the CJEU?
Reminder: what are the different courts of the CJEU?
- CJEU: Court of Justice of the EU
- GC: General Court
- (CST: Civil Service Tribunal; it has ceased its activities in 2016)
How to recognize which court gave judgment?
- Depending on the body that adopted a certain decision, the number of the case is different:
o C (cour) for CJEU: EU:C:2005:446 or C-403/03
o T (tribunal) for GC: EU:T:2007:161 or T-442/04
o (F (fonction publique) for CST: EU:F:2014:248 or F-59/09)
- This number always goes along with a letter:
o P means “pourvoi” = appeal
§ This is one of the most occurring letters and means appeal: in some cases the
matter can be brought before a Court of Appeal, after which the case will be
renumbered (‘C’)
§ E.g. C-123/21 P
o R means “référé” = request of an interim measure
§ E.g. C-45/22 R
o RX means re-examine
9
INHOUDSOPGAVE
INTRODUCTION CLASS ....................................................................................................................................4
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE JUDICIAL ARCHITECTURE OF THE EU.....................................................................5
HOW TO ACCESS EU LAW SOURCES AND HOW TO READ A CASE OF CJEU? ....................................................... 8
JUDICIAL ARCHITECTURE OF THE EU .............................................................................................................. 13
The role of the CJEU........................................................................................................................................... 13
Legal framework ............................................................................................................................................... 14
The evolution of the CJEU architecture ............................................................................................................. 15
Composition, appointment, and tenure of the CJEU members ......................................................................... 17
Intro .............................................................................................................................................................. 17
CJ vs GC ......................................................................................................................................................... 18
The advocate General ................................................................................................................................... 18
The importance of being… a CJEU member .................................................................................................. 19
Requirements and appointment procedure ................................................................................................. 19
Focus on Panel 255 ....................................................................................................................................... 21
Valencius case (C-119/23)............................................................................................................................. 22
Lemmer’s & Kappé’s blogpost ...................................................................................................................... 23
Organizational aspects of the Court of Justice and the General Court .............................................................. 24
Jurisdiction and allocation of competences: an overview ................................................................................. 25
EU LAW BEFORE DOMESTIC COURTS ............................................................................................................. 27
Primacy and direct effect, today ....................................................................................................................... 27
Primacy ......................................................................................................................................................... 27
Direct effect .................................................................................................................................................. 28
Direct effect in horizontal relationships ....................................................................................................... 31
Direct effect vs Direct applicability ............................................................................................................... 32
The ‘daughter’ of primacy and direct effect: disapplication ......................................................................... 33
Consistent interpretation ............................................................................................................................. 36
National procedural autonomy and its limits .................................................................................................... 38
Rewe (1976) (§5) .......................................................................................................................................... 38
The Randstad case (2021) ............................................................................................................................. 40
State liability ..................................................................................................................................................... 41
NI II-case: Direct effect & disapplication ........................................................................................................ 45
Köbler-case ................................................................................................................................................... 47
Commision v. Spain ....................................................................................................................................... 47
Getin Noble Bank .......................................................................................................................................... 50
Kubera .......................................................................................................................................................... 51
Preliminary reference procedure .................................................................................................................. 52
Introduction: rationale(s) and nature ................................................................................................................ 54
, What questions can be referred? ...................................................................................................................... 56
Which bodies may refer? ................................................................................................................................... 56
When ................................................................................................................................................................. 59
When and how to refer? ................................................................................................................................... 61
Procedural aspects before the CJEU: an introduction ....................................................................................... 64
The..................................................................................................................................................................... 66
Focus on the (sometime ‘tense’) relationships with national supreme/constitutional courts........................... 67
Infringement procedure ................................................................................................................................ 68
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 68
Who can act?..................................................................................................................................................... 69
Which breaches of EU law? ............................................................................................................................... 71
The stages of the procedure .............................................................................................................................. 72
The legal effects of the judgement of the Court finding an infringement ......................................................... 74
Sanctions and enforcement of the judgement .................................................................................................. 75
Infringement procedure in figures ..................................................................................................................... 77
Commission v. France (C-416/17)...................................................................................................................... 78
Commission v. Poland ....................................................................................................................................... 80
Action for annulment .................................................................................................................................... 81
Introduction: function and essential elements .................................................................................................. 81
Jurisdiction: where to litigate? .......................................................................................................................... 82
Challengeable acts: what acts can be targeted?............................................................................................... 83
Who can act?..................................................................................................................................................... 84
Grounds for annulment: for what reasons? ...................................................................................................... 87
Effects of the ruling ........................................................................................................................................... 87
Specific elements of the procedure ................................................................................................................... 88
Sharpston v. Council and Representatives of the Governments; Case T-550/20 ............................................. 89
Nicoventures Trading & Others v. Commission (C-731/23P), judgement of 18 December 2025...................... 90
Commission & Council v. Carreras Sequeros and Others; Grand Chamber 8 September 2020 ........................ 93
Essential elements of the procedure before the CJEU – how a case goes through the EU Courts (guest lecture)
..................................................................................................................................................................... 96
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 96
General stages of the procedure ....................................................................................................................... 96
Special issues – intervention.............................................................................................................................. 97
Recent judicial reforms ...................................................................................................................................... 98
Plea of illegality and action for failure to act ................................................................................................. 99
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 99
1
, Plea of illegality ................................................................................................................................................. 99
Legal basis and general description .............................................................................................................. 99
Which acts are concerned?......................................................................................................................... 100
Which violations?........................................................................................................................................ 101
Who can raise a plea of illegality? .............................................................................................................. 101
Where can it be raised? .............................................................................................................................. 101
Effects of the CJEU’s decision to accept the objection of illegality ............................................................. 102
Action for failure to act ................................................................................................................................... 102
Legal basis and general description ............................................................................................................ 102
Substantive aspects of the procedure: What? = IMPORTANT (!) ............................................................... 103
Substantive aspects of the procedure: Who can act? ................................................................................ 104
Procedural aspects: administrative stage and judicial stage ...................................................................... 105
Jurisdiction: Which is the competent court? .............................................................................................. 106
Effects of the judgment declaring a failure to act....................................................................................... 106
A recent example: The «wannabe» Parliament v Commission => not seen in class .................................. 107
Action for damages and Opinions ............................................................................................................... 108
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................... 108
Action for damages against the EU-institutions for non-contractual liability ................................................ 108
Legal basis and general description ............................................................................................................ 108
Notion of Union non-contractual liability ................................................................................................... 109
Relationship with other actions and autonomous nature .......................................................................... 110
Who can bring the action? .......................................................................................................................... 110
Substantive requirements........................................................................................................................... 111
Procedural conditions ................................................................................................................................. 113
Effects of the judgment .............................................................................................................................. 113
Opinions .......................................................................................................................................................... 114
Legal basis and general description ............................................................................................................ 114
About what? On the notion of ‘agreement envisaged’ .............................................................................. 114
About what? In practice.............................................................................................................................. 115
Who can submit a request? ........................................................................................................................ 115
Specific elements of the procedure ............................................................................................................ 115
European Parliament v. Commission (5 september 2023) ............................................................................ 116
Leda Advertising L.t.d. (20 September 2016) ............................................................................................... 117
Special forms of procedure, interim measures, appeals and review procedure ........................................... 118
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................... 118
Interim measures (before the CJEU) ................................................................................................................ 119
Legal basis and general description ............................................................................................................ 119
Which is the competent court? .................................................................................................................. 120
Who can ask for interim measures? ........................................................................................................... 121
Substantive conditions................................................................................................................................ 121
Specific elements of the procedure ............................................................................................................ 122
Effects of an order for interim measures .................................................................................................... 122
Appeals ............................................................................................................................................................ 123
Legal basis and general description ............................................................................................................ 123
Which acts are concerned?......................................................................................................................... 123
Which grounds can be invoked to justify an appeal? ................................................................................. 124
Who can act? .............................................................................................................................................. 124
Specific elements of the procedure ............................................................................................................ 124
Effects of a judgment on appeal ................................................................................................................. 125
2
, Review procedure ............................................................................................................................................ 126
Legal basis and general description ............................................................................................................ 126
When and how a review can be triggered .................................................................................................. 126
Legal effects ................................................................................................................................................ 127
Dyson Ltd and Others v. European Commission .......................................................................................... 127
Order of the President of the General Court 1 July 2019 in case Carles Puigdemont v. Antoni Comin .......... 130
Livio Missir Mamachi di Lusigano v. European Commission 10 September 2015 .......................................... 131
Judicial protection of fundamental social rights .......................................................................................... 132
The Charter and its legal value ........................................................................................................................ 132
Prequel: The long and winding HR road of the EU...................................................................................... 132
The Pintasilgo and Simitis Reports and the Cologne’s Mandate in a nutshell ............................................ 133
Legal value .................................................................................................................................................. 133
Did it work? ................................................................................................................................................. 134
The Charter’s structure ............................................................................................................................... 134
The................................................................................................................................................................... 134
Title VII: General provisions governing the interpretation and application of the Charter ........................ 134
The ‘rights’-‘principles’ divide in theory...................................................................................................... 135
The ‘rights’-‘principles’ divide in practice ................................................................................................... 135
The ‘rights’- ‘principles’ divide: to conclude ............................................................................................... 137
The scope of application: Article 51 and its limits in the CJEU’s case law ....................................................... 137
The Charter: field of application ................................................................................................................. 137
The material scope of application............................................................................................................... 137
The interpretation of the Charter: the issue of direct effect ............................................................................ 138
The personal scope of application: Can the Charter apply to individuals? ................................................. 138
Horizontal direct effect of the Charter ....................................................................................................... 139
Recent developments about the so-called ‘Mangold trick’ ........................................................................ 140
Judicial enforcement of EU values in the case-law of the CJEU (guestlecture) .............................................. 141
Outline: Article 2 TEU values in the CJEU’s case-law ....................................................................................... 141
Justiciability of EU values beyond the rule of law............................................................................................ 144
Mock exam ................................................................................................................................................. 149
3
, INTRODUCTION CLASS (see pp)
GENERAL AND PRACTICAL INFORMATION
Morning class: theory – afternoon class: presentations (shorter)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
In-depth understanding & enhancing a variety of students’ skills
TEACHING METHODS
Lectures and seminars + guest lectures + case-study presentations
ð All students are expected to read in advance the assigned case law (mandatory readings in
Toledo)
How to study this course?
- Before class
o Mandatory reading: cases and articles related to some points going to be discussed
in class
o Non-mandatory reading: if you are interested in knowing more
- Morning class: detailed lesson on how to study a e.g. preliminary procedure (e.g. opinion,
rationale, …)
o List of contents come with the presentation (e.g. history of PL proceeding, who can
stary a PL proceeding,…)
o These are the most important topics to study
- Afternoon class: presentation of topic seen in morning class
CALENDAR
(see pp)
ASSESSMENT METHODS
Cases kennen!! à NOT only the basis
- Central facts
- Main legal issues à not all prejudicial questions are equally relevant
- Is it a development? And in which direction?
- Practical consequences?
- Does it create theoretical ambiguities?
Exam:
- Two open questions: combination theory and application
- Limited open book: only official documents (legislation, case law, NO notes, NO ppts, NO
literature or doctrine) + parts of judgements and legislation are allowed
4
, AN INTRODUCTION TO THE JUDICIAL ARCHITECTURE OF THE EU
Why do we need a system of judicial protection in the EU legal order?
- (1) The basic reason: EU is based on the value of the rule of law à public power is subject to
scrutiny à if violation there should be a remedy à separation of powers: not in the same way
/ categories as on the national level à but public power should still be controlled
o Behind the check and balances there is one of the principle values on which EU states
are based upon: rule of law
o The exercise of public power should be subject to control – the power is not unlimited,
and it should be based on a law
o References to the rule of law?
§ Art. 2 TEU (value of the rule of law)
- (2 + 3) What did the CJEU do?
o We need a traditional branch to avoid that EU law is interpreted and applied
differently in EU MS’s
o Check whether MS’s comply with EU law (enforcement)
o But there is something more: through procedures, the CoJ does not only clarify the
literal meaning of the provisions of EU law, but also the legal effects of these provisions
+ elaborated many of the constitutional provisions of the legal order = tool through
which the CoJ has shaped the legal order (EU level and national level) = most important
procedure
§ Development of the premium ruling reference procedure = bridge that
connects the national courts and the CoJ = based on cooperation, dialogue,
mutual respect of the prerogatives and powers
§ Not just about the protection of individual rights, but also a function in the
shape of the EU law
- (4) The history of liberty of rights, is the history of judicial enforcement
o Without judicial protection, we don’t have rights
o This goes back to the Roman law: EU rights need to have a system of enforcement
WARM UP
The judicial branch of government of the EU is quite unique because the European Union is itself a
quite unique legal construct
The EU is NOT a State nor an ‘ordinary’ international organization – Why? When?
- Sui generis
- When was the distinction between a state and an IO made?
o Van Gend & Loos (1963): import duties on chemical products from Germany to the
Netherlands – direct effect principle
§ = some (& most) provisions of the treaties can be enforced directly before
national judges
o Costa t. ENEL: the basic idea is that when we have an incompatibility between EU and
national law, the solution is not laid down in national legislation, but EU law prevails
- Why does the EU differ from other legal orders?
o EU = supranational legal order
§ MS gave some of their sovereign powers to the EU
o EU = autonomous
§ does not depend on the validity of the national legal systems
o CJEU (van gend en loos): concept of direct effect: the subject of the EU legal order are
also individuals living in Europe and not just citizen of the states
5
,Opinion 2/13: The founding treaties of the EU, unlike ordinary international treaties, established a
new legal order
- = opinion on the accession of the EU to the convention of human rights (since this is not a
binding form of primary law) – how do we solve this?
o Possibility to ask an opinion to the CJEU (art 218, § 11 TFEU): limited to the
compatibility of draft international agreement that the EU wishes to conclude with EU
primary law
o Hierarchy of sources of EU law:
§ Primary law: treaties and charters
§ International agreements concluded by the EU
• These agreements respect primary law
• Secondary law shall respect those agreements
§ Secondary law: EU legislations, directives, regulations, decisions
o The opinion was negative for several years
o The draft agreement was not compatible with the essential characteristics of
the EU
o They had to specify which characteristics where not compatible:
§ Possessing its own institutions,
§ For the benefit of which the Member States (MSs) have limited their
sovereign rights, in ever wider fields,
§ The subjects of which comprise not only MSs but also their nationals
(Para 157)
§ Autonomous vis-à-vis the laws of the MSs and international law (Para
170)
§ Specific characteristics (Para. 161 ff.)
o In the last few years: in the process of restarting the session: a new draft agreement
§ There is a political will
à Court of Justice of the EU is not like other international courts, it resembles national courts more
closely than any other international court
THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE JUDICIAL SYSTEM OF THE EU
Composite/multilevel judicial architecture:
I) Court of Justice of the EU (CJEU) comprises:
= one of the institutions of the EU (art 13 TEU): comprises different bodies
- The Court of Justice: 1 judge per MS; 11 Advocates General
o Difference between judges and AG? AG: gives opinions to the judges
o What is the connection with the opinions of art 218 TFEU? NO connection, two
different acts; DO NOT CONFUSE:
§ Opinion of art. 218 TFEU
§ Opinion of AG
§ Opinion of art. 288 TFEU adopted by the political institutions
- The General Court: at least 1 per MS à today: 2 judges per MS
o Why has the general court been introduced? Rationale?
§ Workload: ‘the CJ has been victim of its own success’ à the CJ became
increasingly feasible as an ally for national courts, because the competences
of the EU have been extended à new legislation and cases
§ Specialization of competences à general court became the first instance
court to analyze the facts
- And, specialized courts, if any (we don’t have any now – but it is possible under treaty)
o Used in the past to establish a civil servant court, but those competences were
reintegrated in the general court
6
,The CJEU «shall ensure that in the interpretation and application of the Treaties the law is observed».
(Art. 19 (1) TEU)
- Why is this necessary? Idea: to avoid the nationalization of EU law (because it is a
phenomenon that the adopted rule is impacted by national culture, law etc.)
- Why is that important? Equality of MS = constitutional principle (art 4 TEU) à ensures that all
MS apply EU law, because otherwise some have advantages against the others
- How make sure that the equality is ensured?
o Infringement procedure: EC oversees the correct application by the MS
§ = centralized system of application
o Preliminary ruling
§ Ensuring correct interpretation
§ = system of decentralized enforcement: before national court, which can refer
to CJEU
II) Art. 19 (1) (2) TEU: «Member States shall provide remedies sufficient to ensure effective legal
protection in the fields covered by Union law»
- Does this mean that the EU has a competence in organizing the national judicial systems? NO:
o MS have the competence to organize it by themselves
o However: when national judges apply EU law, they are functionally EU judges, NOT
legally = European mandate of national courts
- Within the scope of application of EU law, functionally, national judges shall be considered
‘functional EU judges’
o ‘Ordinary Union courts’: EU law is applied, first and foremost, by national judges and
national authorities
Art. 4(2) TEU: «The Union shall respect the equality of Member States before the Treaties as well as
their national identities, inherent in their fundamental structures, political and constitutional,
inclusive of regional and local self-government. »
- Respect of national identities means to also respect the judicial systems of the ms
- Huge BUT: in the organization of the judicial system, they have to ensure that the national
judges can perform their European mandate: to apply EU law, to disapply national law
incompatible with EU law, refer to CJEU when in doubt, independent courts
EU LAW BEFORE NATIONAL COURTS
Before national courts, the substantive protection is guaranteed by the combination of the ‘structural
principles’ of the EU legal order:
- Primacy + direct effect → disapplication
- Primacy + indirect effect → consistent interpretation
- State liability (Joined Cases C-6 and C-9/90, Francovich; Joined Cases C-46 and C-48/93,
Brasserie du Pêcheur; Case C-224/21, Köbler)
Triangular relationship:
- Preliminary reference to the ECJ (Article 267 TFEU)
- Referral to the MS’s Constitutional Court
à essential to enforce EU law before national judges
! all these structural principles are intertwined before national courts à easy position of national
judges: to national constitutional court or to CJEU?
7
,HOW TO ACCESS EU LAW SOURCES AND HOW TO READ A CASE OF CJEU?
How to find EU law sources and how to read a case of CJEU?
Reminder: what are the EU treaties currently in force?
- Treaty on European Union (TEU)
- Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU)
- Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union
Where to find them?
- This is the main website to find EU law sources
- EUR-lex (the Holy Grail for EU Lawyers!): http://eur-lex.europa.eu/collection/eu-
law/treaties.html?locale=en
Chronological overview: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/collection/eu-law/treaties/treaties-overview.html
- Treaty establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (1951)
- Treaty establishing the European Economic Community (1957)
- Treaty establishing the European Atomic Energy Community (1957)
- Single European Act (1986)
- Treaty on European Union/Treaty of Maastricht (1992) (newly created)
- Treaty establishing the European Community (change of EEC to EC)
- Treaty of Amsterdam (1997) (changes in existing TEC and TEU)
- Treaty of Nice (2001) (changes in existing TEC and TEU + non-binding Charter)
- (failed) Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe (2004)
- Treaty of Lisbon (changes in existing TEC (now TFEU) and TEU + binding Charter)
= overview of primary law that show how treaties have been modified and amended over the years
See table of conversion on Toledo!
How to find EU secondary law?
Reminder: what is EU secondary law?
- Often referred as “derived” Union acts: acts adopted on the basis of the treaties
Where to find them?
- EUR-lex
o ✓Legal acts: Legal acts - EUR-Lex
§ = mainly regulation directly applicable to ms
o ✓International agreements: International agreements - EUR-Lex
§ à need to be transposed into national legislation
o ✓ Note that there is also the ‘C’ series of the Official Journal (OJ) consisting of
resolutions, recommendations, guidelines, opinions, information, preparatory acts,
notices, announcements
§ = non-binding acts
How to read EU secondary law?
Directive 2017/1371 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 July 2017 on the fight
against fraud to the Union’s financial interests by means of criminal law: https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1600352286284&uri=CELEX:32017L1371
8
, There are many ways of reading this law, depending on what is your aim, but the main important
aspect lies in the questions:
- What is the legal basis and where can you find it?
o The competences to regulate a certain matter, it does not merely confer the
competences to the Union, but also specifies the procedure on how the EU can
exercise a specific competence
o Art 83(2) TFEU
- What is the intention of the Union legislator and where can you find it?
o In the first articles of the measure you can find to measure, scope, …
o ! recitals
o ≠ non-binding, but can be invoked to understand
§ Help in understanding how to interpret the act
- What is the subject matter of the Directive?
o In the first part of each Act you find this article, this is the referral to the legal basis
How to find and read a case of the CJEU?
Reminder: what are the different courts of the CJEU?
- CJEU: Court of Justice of the EU
- GC: General Court
- (CST: Civil Service Tribunal; it has ceased its activities in 2016)
How to recognize which court gave judgment?
- Depending on the body that adopted a certain decision, the number of the case is different:
o C (cour) for CJEU: EU:C:2005:446 or C-403/03
o T (tribunal) for GC: EU:T:2007:161 or T-442/04
o (F (fonction publique) for CST: EU:F:2014:248 or F-59/09)
- This number always goes along with a letter:
o P means “pourvoi” = appeal
§ This is one of the most occurring letters and means appeal: in some cases the
matter can be brought before a Court of Appeal, after which the case will be
renumbered (‘C’)
§ E.g. C-123/21 P
o R means “référé” = request of an interim measure
§ E.g. C-45/22 R
o RX means re-examine
9
