Research Meth and Descriptive Statistics Week 6
Unit 1: What is empirical research?
Babbie Ch. 1 p. 3-13
Looking for Reality
Knowledge from Agreement Reality: An association must have both logical and
empirical support. Epistemology is the science of knowing. Methodology might be
called the science of finding out. Everyone inherits a culture made up of firmly
accepted knowledge about the world and the values that guide our participation
in it. We also benefit throughout life from new discoveries and understandings
produced by others. Some common errors we make in our casual inquiries and
the way science guards against errors. Inaccurate observations: We can make
things easier by simple or complex measurements devices which help guard
against inaccurate observations. Overgeneralization: When we look at the things
we observe, we often assume that a few similar events are evidence of a general
pattern. You can provide this by repeating a study and checking to see if the
same results occur (replication). Selective observation: Once you have concluded
that a pattern exists and have an understanding why it does, you’ll tend to focus
on things that fit the pattern and you’ll ignore those that don’t. Illogical
reasoning: We have ‘The exception that proves the rule’.
The Foundations of Social Science
Three major aspects of the overall scientific enterprise: theory, data collection
and data analysis. Social Regularities: Social Science Theory aims to find patterns
in social life. The number of formal norms in society create a considerable degree
of regularity. Three objections are sometimes raised about social regularities.
Some of the regularities may seem trivial (Republicans vote for Republicans). The
reference group theory says that people judge their lot by comparing themselves
with others around them. Contradictory cases may be cited, indicating that
regularity isn’t totally regular. Social regularities are probabilistic patterns, and
they are no less real, simply because some cases don’t fit the general pattern. It
may be argued that the people involved in the regularity could upset the whole
thing if they wanted to. (A Republican can vote for Democrat, just to upset the
rest of the voters). Social research has a recursive quality, in that what we learn
about society can end up changing things so that what we learned is no longer
true (ten best places you can live in keeps changing). Social scientist study
primarily social patterns rather than individual ones. These patterns reflect the
aggregate or collective actions and situations of many individuals.
Henk van der Kolk: decision making & empirical research
Making decisions can be done in six phases:
1. Problem analysis and definition
, The difference between what is or will be in the future and what is desired or
what ought to be the case, is called a problem. If you try to explain the ‘is-
part’ you can do explanatory research. You first think about potential answers.
These answers are summarized in theory. Sometimes these theories are
tested for explanation. Sometimes this phase consists of thinking about
possible improvements. You reflect on norms that are not met by the current
product or policy.
2. Listing or designing options
In this second phase you will possibly have to look at available options. If
options are not available, you may have to design new options. You use the
information you have already found in the first phase. In this progress you can
integrate things you know into something new.
3. Evaluate options, ex ante evaluation
Questions about whether the options are working must be answered by doing
empirical research. This type of study takes place before anything is
implemented, so we talk about ex ante (before) evaluation. This can be done
in various ways. Ideally you want to test all the options using all the criteria.
4. Decision-making
If one option stands out, decision-making is relatively simple. Most of the time
this is not the case. Weighing criteria and considering uncertainties can be
done in various ways. In this phase empirical research does not play a role.
5. Implementation
This phase is the realization of the selected option. Implementing the option
often is a decision-making process by itself. Research can be done to solve
implementation issues.
6. Evaluation
In this phase you look back at the choices you have made during the process.
You especially look at the extent to which the result met the criteria stated in
the problem analysis.
Phases 1, 3, 4, 5 are mostly done in a superficial way, without a lot of thinking. In
most phases, empirical questions may arise. These are questions that can only
be answered by observation. Applied research is ‘using existing knowledge to
better understand a particular case or problem’.
,Video’s:
1. The empirical cycle (wheel of science)
Empirical research: systematically answering empirical questions. Systematically:
excluding the possibility that other answers are better than the answer we give.
Empirical: about things we can observe.
Procedure: Empirical research question > Knowledge/answer.
Starting with a question (when we go from something general to something
specific) = Deduction. Starting with data (when we go from something specific to
something general) = Induction. It is not a logical sequence of steps, but in your
conclusion, it must be logical.
2. Empirical research questions in the context of decision making and design
Empirical research questions can only be answered using observations. ‘How to’
questions are empirical, but they look different. Empirical research questions are
often asked in the context of decision making.
‘How to’ questions can be broken up into descriptive and explanatory research
questions by following the decision-making process.
Empirical research questions are simple, descriptive and explanatory.
3. Confirmation Bias
Confirmation bias: Search for, analyze and recall information in a way that
confirms preexisting beliefs, while giving disproportionately less consideration to
alternative interpretations. It affects what we think is true.
Think: Information > reasoning > conclusions. Bias on the acquisition of info. Bias
in reasoning. Bias in remembering conclusions. Emotion issues, convictions, and
sloppiness create biases.
, Confirmation bias is so strong, because humans have limitations (rely on
heuristics), wishful thinking, Consistency (between initial evidence and new
evidence).
Consequences of confirmation bias: Mistakes in knowledge, bad decisions.
Avoiding confirmation bias: Not intelligence, systematic data gathering, explicit
and complete reasoning, this is what you learn in research methods. Basic ideas:
clarify your pre-existing beliefs (theory), clarify the procedures you will use to test
these beliefs (methods), stick to these procedures.
Unit 2: What are clear research questions?
Babbie Ch. 1 p. 13-27
Concepts and Variables
Social research involves the study of variables and attributes that compose them.
Attributes are characteristics or qualities that describe an object. Variables are
logical sets of attributes. Think of the attributes as the categories that make up a
variable. We have independent and dependent variables. We can say that the
independent variable is the cause and the dependent variable is the effect.
Some dialectics of Social Research
Much of the power and potential of social research lies in the many valid
approaches it comprises. Four broad and interrelated distinctions underline these
approaches. 1. Idiographic and Nomothetic Explanation: Idiographic explanation:
We attempt to explain a single situation in idiosyncratic detail. Idio means
unique, separate, peculiar or distinct. Nomothetic explanation: seeks to explain a
class of situations or events rather than one. Both approaches can serve in your
daily life. Nomothetic might offer a good guide for planning and idiographic is
more convincing to your parole officer. 2. Inductive and Deductive Theory. 3.
Determinism versus Agency: The philosophical question here is whether human
behaviors are determined by their environment or whether they feel and act out
of their personal choice or agency. The conclusion is that each of us possesses
considerable free choice or agency, but we readily allow ourselves to be
controlled by environmental forces and factors. Social research looks for ways
that social structures affect the experiences and situations of individuals.
Tolerance for ambiguity is an important ability in social science. The ability to
hold conflicting ideas in your mind simultaneously, without denying or dismissing
any of them. 4. Qualitative and Quantitative Data: Every observation is
qualitative, whether it is your experience or someone’s IQ. Quantitative is always
a number. It can make observations more explicit, and it opens the possibility of
statistical analysis. Qualitative data are richer in meaning and detail than
quantitative data. Any quantitative measure will be more superficial than the
corresponding qualitative description. Both methods are useful and legitimate in
social research.
Unit 1: What is empirical research?
Babbie Ch. 1 p. 3-13
Looking for Reality
Knowledge from Agreement Reality: An association must have both logical and
empirical support. Epistemology is the science of knowing. Methodology might be
called the science of finding out. Everyone inherits a culture made up of firmly
accepted knowledge about the world and the values that guide our participation
in it. We also benefit throughout life from new discoveries and understandings
produced by others. Some common errors we make in our casual inquiries and
the way science guards against errors. Inaccurate observations: We can make
things easier by simple or complex measurements devices which help guard
against inaccurate observations. Overgeneralization: When we look at the things
we observe, we often assume that a few similar events are evidence of a general
pattern. You can provide this by repeating a study and checking to see if the
same results occur (replication). Selective observation: Once you have concluded
that a pattern exists and have an understanding why it does, you’ll tend to focus
on things that fit the pattern and you’ll ignore those that don’t. Illogical
reasoning: We have ‘The exception that proves the rule’.
The Foundations of Social Science
Three major aspects of the overall scientific enterprise: theory, data collection
and data analysis. Social Regularities: Social Science Theory aims to find patterns
in social life. The number of formal norms in society create a considerable degree
of regularity. Three objections are sometimes raised about social regularities.
Some of the regularities may seem trivial (Republicans vote for Republicans). The
reference group theory says that people judge their lot by comparing themselves
with others around them. Contradictory cases may be cited, indicating that
regularity isn’t totally regular. Social regularities are probabilistic patterns, and
they are no less real, simply because some cases don’t fit the general pattern. It
may be argued that the people involved in the regularity could upset the whole
thing if they wanted to. (A Republican can vote for Democrat, just to upset the
rest of the voters). Social research has a recursive quality, in that what we learn
about society can end up changing things so that what we learned is no longer
true (ten best places you can live in keeps changing). Social scientist study
primarily social patterns rather than individual ones. These patterns reflect the
aggregate or collective actions and situations of many individuals.
Henk van der Kolk: decision making & empirical research
Making decisions can be done in six phases:
1. Problem analysis and definition
, The difference between what is or will be in the future and what is desired or
what ought to be the case, is called a problem. If you try to explain the ‘is-
part’ you can do explanatory research. You first think about potential answers.
These answers are summarized in theory. Sometimes these theories are
tested for explanation. Sometimes this phase consists of thinking about
possible improvements. You reflect on norms that are not met by the current
product or policy.
2. Listing or designing options
In this second phase you will possibly have to look at available options. If
options are not available, you may have to design new options. You use the
information you have already found in the first phase. In this progress you can
integrate things you know into something new.
3. Evaluate options, ex ante evaluation
Questions about whether the options are working must be answered by doing
empirical research. This type of study takes place before anything is
implemented, so we talk about ex ante (before) evaluation. This can be done
in various ways. Ideally you want to test all the options using all the criteria.
4. Decision-making
If one option stands out, decision-making is relatively simple. Most of the time
this is not the case. Weighing criteria and considering uncertainties can be
done in various ways. In this phase empirical research does not play a role.
5. Implementation
This phase is the realization of the selected option. Implementing the option
often is a decision-making process by itself. Research can be done to solve
implementation issues.
6. Evaluation
In this phase you look back at the choices you have made during the process.
You especially look at the extent to which the result met the criteria stated in
the problem analysis.
Phases 1, 3, 4, 5 are mostly done in a superficial way, without a lot of thinking. In
most phases, empirical questions may arise. These are questions that can only
be answered by observation. Applied research is ‘using existing knowledge to
better understand a particular case or problem’.
,Video’s:
1. The empirical cycle (wheel of science)
Empirical research: systematically answering empirical questions. Systematically:
excluding the possibility that other answers are better than the answer we give.
Empirical: about things we can observe.
Procedure: Empirical research question > Knowledge/answer.
Starting with a question (when we go from something general to something
specific) = Deduction. Starting with data (when we go from something specific to
something general) = Induction. It is not a logical sequence of steps, but in your
conclusion, it must be logical.
2. Empirical research questions in the context of decision making and design
Empirical research questions can only be answered using observations. ‘How to’
questions are empirical, but they look different. Empirical research questions are
often asked in the context of decision making.
‘How to’ questions can be broken up into descriptive and explanatory research
questions by following the decision-making process.
Empirical research questions are simple, descriptive and explanatory.
3. Confirmation Bias
Confirmation bias: Search for, analyze and recall information in a way that
confirms preexisting beliefs, while giving disproportionately less consideration to
alternative interpretations. It affects what we think is true.
Think: Information > reasoning > conclusions. Bias on the acquisition of info. Bias
in reasoning. Bias in remembering conclusions. Emotion issues, convictions, and
sloppiness create biases.
, Confirmation bias is so strong, because humans have limitations (rely on
heuristics), wishful thinking, Consistency (between initial evidence and new
evidence).
Consequences of confirmation bias: Mistakes in knowledge, bad decisions.
Avoiding confirmation bias: Not intelligence, systematic data gathering, explicit
and complete reasoning, this is what you learn in research methods. Basic ideas:
clarify your pre-existing beliefs (theory), clarify the procedures you will use to test
these beliefs (methods), stick to these procedures.
Unit 2: What are clear research questions?
Babbie Ch. 1 p. 13-27
Concepts and Variables
Social research involves the study of variables and attributes that compose them.
Attributes are characteristics or qualities that describe an object. Variables are
logical sets of attributes. Think of the attributes as the categories that make up a
variable. We have independent and dependent variables. We can say that the
independent variable is the cause and the dependent variable is the effect.
Some dialectics of Social Research
Much of the power and potential of social research lies in the many valid
approaches it comprises. Four broad and interrelated distinctions underline these
approaches. 1. Idiographic and Nomothetic Explanation: Idiographic explanation:
We attempt to explain a single situation in idiosyncratic detail. Idio means
unique, separate, peculiar or distinct. Nomothetic explanation: seeks to explain a
class of situations or events rather than one. Both approaches can serve in your
daily life. Nomothetic might offer a good guide for planning and idiographic is
more convincing to your parole officer. 2. Inductive and Deductive Theory. 3.
Determinism versus Agency: The philosophical question here is whether human
behaviors are determined by their environment or whether they feel and act out
of their personal choice or agency. The conclusion is that each of us possesses
considerable free choice or agency, but we readily allow ourselves to be
controlled by environmental forces and factors. Social research looks for ways
that social structures affect the experiences and situations of individuals.
Tolerance for ambiguity is an important ability in social science. The ability to
hold conflicting ideas in your mind simultaneously, without denying or dismissing
any of them. 4. Qualitative and Quantitative Data: Every observation is
qualitative, whether it is your experience or someone’s IQ. Quantitative is always
a number. It can make observations more explicit, and it opens the possibility of
statistical analysis. Qualitative data are richer in meaning and detail than
quantitative data. Any quantitative measure will be more superficial than the
corresponding qualitative description. Both methods are useful and legitimate in
social research.
