Bio 235- Midterm 2
1. Muscle insertion: place where the muscle ends
2. Deltoid: triangle shaped, covers shoulder
Origin: acromial extremity of clavicle (anterior fibers), acromion of scapula (lateral
fibers) and spine of scapula (posterior fibers)
Insertion: deltoid tuberosity of humerus
Action: lateral fibers abduct arm at shoulder joint; anterior fibers flex and medially
rotate arm at shoulder joint, posterior fibers extend and laterally rotate arm at
shoulder joint.
3. Gluteus max- sacrum to beneath greater trochanter of femur
imus: Origin: iliac crest, sacrum, coccyx, and aponeurosis of sacrospinalis
Insertion: iliotibial tract of fascia lata and superior lateral part of linea aspera
(gluteal tuberosity) under greater trochanter of femur
Action: extends thigh at hip joint and laterally rotates thigh; helps lock knee in
extension
4. Quadriceps covers most of anterior surface and sides of the thigh: rectus femoris, vastus
femoris: lateralis, vastus medialis, vastus intermedius
5. Rectus femoris: anterior aspect of thigh
Origin: anterior inferior iliac spine
Insertion: patella via quadriceps tendon and then tibial tuberosity via patellar
ligament
Action: Quads together extend leg at knee joint; acting alone, flexes thigh at hip
joint
6. Vastus lateralis: lateral aspect of thigh Action: extend leg at knee joint
7. Vastus medialis: medial aspect of thigh
Action: extend leg at knee joint
8.
, Bio 235- Midterm 2
Vastus inter- deep to the rectus femoris between vastus lateralis and medialis
medius: Action: extend leg at knee joint
9. Ion channels: electrochemical, leak channels, ligand-gated, mechanically-gated, voltage-gated
10. Electrochemical a concentration difference plus an electrical difference = Ions move from higher
gradient: concentration to lower concentration (chemical part of the gradient) and negative
anions move toward a positive area (electrical part of the gradient)
11. Leak channel: gates randomly alternate between open and closed positions. Typically, plasma
membranes have far more K+ leak channels than Na+ leak channels, and the K+
leak channels are leakier than the Na+ leak channels. Therefore, the membranes
permeability to K+ is much higher than Na+. Leak channels are found in nearly all
cells, incl. dendrites, cell bodies, and axons of all neurons.
12. Ligand-gated opens and closes in response to the binding of a ligand (chemical) stimulus. Ex.
channel: NTs, hormones, ions. Ex. Ach opens cation channels that allow Na+ and Ca+ to flow
in and K+ to flow out. Located in the dendrites of some sensory neurons, such
as pain receptors, and in dendrites and cell bodies of interneurons and motor
neurons.
13. Mechanically gat- opens or closes in response to mechanical stimulation in the form of vibration
ed channel: (such as sound waves), touch, pressure, or tissue stretching. The force distorts
the channel from resting position, opening the gate. Ex: in auditory receptors in
ears, receptors that monitor GI tract stretching, and touch and pressure receptors
in skin.
14. Voltage-gated opens in response to a change in membrane potential. Participate in the gener-
channel: ation and conduction of action potentials in the axons of all types of neurons.
15. Resting mem- Exists because of a small buildup of negative ions in the cytosol along the inside
brane potential of the membrane, and an equal buildup of positive ions in the ECF outside
(RMP): the membrane. The separation of + and - charge is a form of potential energy,
, Bio 235- Midterm 2
measured in volts or millivolts. The greater the difference in charge across the
membrane, the larger the membrane potential (voltage). The buildup in charge
occurs only very close to the membrane.
16. How to measure 1. the tip of the recording microelectrode is inserted inside the neuron
RMP? 2. the reference electrode is placed in the ECF
3. the electrodes (conduct charge) are connected to a voltmeter (detects volt-
age/change in charge) that measures the difference in charge across the plasma
membrane
17. What does "po- electrically charged, negative inside/positive outside
larized" mean?
18. What are the 1. unequal distribution of ions in the ECF and cytosol
3 factors that 2. inability of most anions to leave the cell
a negative rest- 3. electrogenic nature of the Na+/K+ ATpases
ing membrane
potential arises
from?
19. Negative RMP ECF is rich in Na+ and Cl-. Cytosol is rich in K+ (cation) and 3 phosphate groups
factor- unequal attached to ATP and amino acids (anions). More K+ diffuse down their concentra-
distribution of tion gradient towards ECF, making the ECF (outside) more positive and the cytosol
ions in the ECF (inside) more negative.
and cytosol:
20. Negative RMP most anions inside the cell cannot leave and follow K+ out of the cell because they
factor- inability of are attached to non-diffusible molecules like ATP and large proteins
most anions to
leave the cell:
21. Negative RMP
factor- electro-
, Bio 235- Midterm 2
genic nature of 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ in Na+/K+ ATPase = since the pumps removes more positive
Na+/K+ ATPases: charges from the cell than bringing it into the cell = makes it electrogenic (con-
tribute to the negative RMP)
22. What are acetylcholine, amino acid, biogenic amines, ATP and other purines, nitric oxide,
the types carbon monoxide
of small-mole-
cule NTs?
23. Acetylcholine excitatory (ACh bind to ionotropic and open cation channels) and inhibitory (bind
(ACh) (NT): to metabotropic + G protein and opens K+ channels)
24. Amino acids (NT): glutamate (excitatory), GABA (gaba-aminobutyric / inhibitory), glycine (inhibitory)
25. Biogenic amines norepinephrine (NE), epinephrine, dopamine (DA)
(NT):
26. Norepinephrine arousal, dreaming, mood
(NE):
27. Dopamine (DA): emotional responses, addiction, pleasure, regulate skeletal muscle tone
28. Catecholamines epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine (all have an amino group NH2 and
include: catechol ring of 6 carbons and 2 carboxyl groups OH)
29. Serotonin (NT): (biogenic amine) aka 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) : in raphe nucleus = sensory
perception, temperature regulation, control of mood, appetite, induction of sleep
30. Nitric Oxide (NO): excitatory = brain, spinal cord, adrenal glands, nerves to penis
31. Cervical plexus: C1-C5
32. Brachial plexus: C5-T1
33. Lumbar plexus: L1-L4
1. Muscle insertion: place where the muscle ends
2. Deltoid: triangle shaped, covers shoulder
Origin: acromial extremity of clavicle (anterior fibers), acromion of scapula (lateral
fibers) and spine of scapula (posterior fibers)
Insertion: deltoid tuberosity of humerus
Action: lateral fibers abduct arm at shoulder joint; anterior fibers flex and medially
rotate arm at shoulder joint, posterior fibers extend and laterally rotate arm at
shoulder joint.
3. Gluteus max- sacrum to beneath greater trochanter of femur
imus: Origin: iliac crest, sacrum, coccyx, and aponeurosis of sacrospinalis
Insertion: iliotibial tract of fascia lata and superior lateral part of linea aspera
(gluteal tuberosity) under greater trochanter of femur
Action: extends thigh at hip joint and laterally rotates thigh; helps lock knee in
extension
4. Quadriceps covers most of anterior surface and sides of the thigh: rectus femoris, vastus
femoris: lateralis, vastus medialis, vastus intermedius
5. Rectus femoris: anterior aspect of thigh
Origin: anterior inferior iliac spine
Insertion: patella via quadriceps tendon and then tibial tuberosity via patellar
ligament
Action: Quads together extend leg at knee joint; acting alone, flexes thigh at hip
joint
6. Vastus lateralis: lateral aspect of thigh Action: extend leg at knee joint
7. Vastus medialis: medial aspect of thigh
Action: extend leg at knee joint
8.
, Bio 235- Midterm 2
Vastus inter- deep to the rectus femoris between vastus lateralis and medialis
medius: Action: extend leg at knee joint
9. Ion channels: electrochemical, leak channels, ligand-gated, mechanically-gated, voltage-gated
10. Electrochemical a concentration difference plus an electrical difference = Ions move from higher
gradient: concentration to lower concentration (chemical part of the gradient) and negative
anions move toward a positive area (electrical part of the gradient)
11. Leak channel: gates randomly alternate between open and closed positions. Typically, plasma
membranes have far more K+ leak channels than Na+ leak channels, and the K+
leak channels are leakier than the Na+ leak channels. Therefore, the membranes
permeability to K+ is much higher than Na+. Leak channels are found in nearly all
cells, incl. dendrites, cell bodies, and axons of all neurons.
12. Ligand-gated opens and closes in response to the binding of a ligand (chemical) stimulus. Ex.
channel: NTs, hormones, ions. Ex. Ach opens cation channels that allow Na+ and Ca+ to flow
in and K+ to flow out. Located in the dendrites of some sensory neurons, such
as pain receptors, and in dendrites and cell bodies of interneurons and motor
neurons.
13. Mechanically gat- opens or closes in response to mechanical stimulation in the form of vibration
ed channel: (such as sound waves), touch, pressure, or tissue stretching. The force distorts
the channel from resting position, opening the gate. Ex: in auditory receptors in
ears, receptors that monitor GI tract stretching, and touch and pressure receptors
in skin.
14. Voltage-gated opens in response to a change in membrane potential. Participate in the gener-
channel: ation and conduction of action potentials in the axons of all types of neurons.
15. Resting mem- Exists because of a small buildup of negative ions in the cytosol along the inside
brane potential of the membrane, and an equal buildup of positive ions in the ECF outside
(RMP): the membrane. The separation of + and - charge is a form of potential energy,
, Bio 235- Midterm 2
measured in volts or millivolts. The greater the difference in charge across the
membrane, the larger the membrane potential (voltage). The buildup in charge
occurs only very close to the membrane.
16. How to measure 1. the tip of the recording microelectrode is inserted inside the neuron
RMP? 2. the reference electrode is placed in the ECF
3. the electrodes (conduct charge) are connected to a voltmeter (detects volt-
age/change in charge) that measures the difference in charge across the plasma
membrane
17. What does "po- electrically charged, negative inside/positive outside
larized" mean?
18. What are the 1. unequal distribution of ions in the ECF and cytosol
3 factors that 2. inability of most anions to leave the cell
a negative rest- 3. electrogenic nature of the Na+/K+ ATpases
ing membrane
potential arises
from?
19. Negative RMP ECF is rich in Na+ and Cl-. Cytosol is rich in K+ (cation) and 3 phosphate groups
factor- unequal attached to ATP and amino acids (anions). More K+ diffuse down their concentra-
distribution of tion gradient towards ECF, making the ECF (outside) more positive and the cytosol
ions in the ECF (inside) more negative.
and cytosol:
20. Negative RMP most anions inside the cell cannot leave and follow K+ out of the cell because they
factor- inability of are attached to non-diffusible molecules like ATP and large proteins
most anions to
leave the cell:
21. Negative RMP
factor- electro-
, Bio 235- Midterm 2
genic nature of 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ in Na+/K+ ATPase = since the pumps removes more positive
Na+/K+ ATPases: charges from the cell than bringing it into the cell = makes it electrogenic (con-
tribute to the negative RMP)
22. What are acetylcholine, amino acid, biogenic amines, ATP and other purines, nitric oxide,
the types carbon monoxide
of small-mole-
cule NTs?
23. Acetylcholine excitatory (ACh bind to ionotropic and open cation channels) and inhibitory (bind
(ACh) (NT): to metabotropic + G protein and opens K+ channels)
24. Amino acids (NT): glutamate (excitatory), GABA (gaba-aminobutyric / inhibitory), glycine (inhibitory)
25. Biogenic amines norepinephrine (NE), epinephrine, dopamine (DA)
(NT):
26. Norepinephrine arousal, dreaming, mood
(NE):
27. Dopamine (DA): emotional responses, addiction, pleasure, regulate skeletal muscle tone
28. Catecholamines epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine (all have an amino group NH2 and
include: catechol ring of 6 carbons and 2 carboxyl groups OH)
29. Serotonin (NT): (biogenic amine) aka 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) : in raphe nucleus = sensory
perception, temperature regulation, control of mood, appetite, induction of sleep
30. Nitric Oxide (NO): excitatory = brain, spinal cord, adrenal glands, nerves to penis
31. Cervical plexus: C1-C5
32. Brachial plexus: C5-T1
33. Lumbar plexus: L1-L4
