WCU PHYS 261 Final Exam Review 2026–2027: Practice Questions with 100% Correct Answers – Human Physiology (West Coast University / Nursing & Pre‑Med / Allied Health)

This 2026–2027 document contains a comprehensive final exam review for WCU PHYS 261 (Human Physiology) with practice questions and verified correct answers. It is designed for West Coast University students, pre‑nursing, pre‑med, and allied health majors preparing for the PHYS 261 final exam, HESI A2, or MCAT biology/physiology sections. Content covers all major topics including: cardiovascular physiology – stroke volume (SV), end‑diastolic volume (EDV), end‑systolic volume (ESV), cardiac output (HR × SV), factors affecting blood pressure (vasoconstriction increases BP, decreased cardiac output decreases BP), action potentials in myocardial contractile cells (rapid depolarization via Na⁺ influx, plateau phase prevents tetanus), transverse tubules (conduct AP to interior), excitation‑contraction coupling (Ca²⁺ binds troponin, pulls tropomyosin), ECG waves (P wave = atrial depolarization, QRS = ventricular depolarization), sympathetic vs parasympathetic effects on heart rate and ESV; muscle physiology – sarcomere as repeating unit, myosin light chain kinase (activated by Ca²⁺‑calmodulin), contraction cycle initiated by Ca²⁺ from SR; renal and fluid balance – glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule (renal corpuscle), filtration from glomerulus to nephron lumen, secretion from peritubular capillaries to lumen, ADH (vasopressin) controls water reabsorption, renin‑angiotensin‑aldosterone system (renin produces angiotensin I, ACE converts to angiotensin II – stimulates thirst, vasoconstriction, aldosterone release, increased blood volume/pressure), angiotensin II does NOT activate parasympathetic output, aldosterone excess causes hypokalemia and increased urinary K⁺, dehydration (decreased blood volume & pressure, increased osmolarity), GFR increased by decreased plasma protein concentration, hyperkalemia definition; digestive system – chief cells secrete pepsinogen, G cells secrete gastrin, chyme released from stomach, bile from liver stored in gallbladder, bile salts emulsify fats, carboxypeptidase digests proteins, short reflexes integrated in enteric nervous system; immune system – IgA in breast milk, primary lymphoid tissues (thymus and bone marrow), secondary lymphoid tissues allow immune cells to interact with pathogens, no thymus → low T lymphocytes, MHC class I with antigen stimulates cytotoxic T cells, complement cascade forms pores in pathogen membranes, opsonins tag pathogens for phagocytes, IgE attached to mast cells in allergic reactions, hypersensitivity/allergy when response out of proportion to threat, autoimmune diseases = incorrect immune response, blood type determined by glycoproteins on cell membranes, first line of defense (stomach acid); reproductive system – FSH in males initiates sperm production, GnRH regulates gonad function, Wolffian duct gives rise to seminal vesicles/vas deferens (male differentiation), acrosomal reaction allows sperm penetration, YO zygote dies, prolactin stimulates milk production, oxytocin causes milk letdown, Leydig cells secrete testosterone, follicular phase (first phase of ovarian cycle – follicle maturation), luteal phase (ruptured follicle transforms to corpus luteum); acid‑base – opioid overdose respiratory depression → kidney compensates with increased H⁺ excretion and increased HCO₃⁻ reabsorption. Each question includes the correct answer with rationales. Ideal for WCU PHYS 261 final exam, human physiology courses, nursing prerequisites, and MCAT biology review. Updated for 2026‑2027.