A-Level PE, AQA all notes needed for paper 1
PE – PAPER 1 SECTION A //
APPLIED ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY
Table of Contents
Cardio-respiratory system.................................................................................2
Respiratory system.........................................................................................14
Neuromuscular system....................................................................................19
The Musculo-skeletal system and analysis of movement in physical activities....23
Energy systems..............................................................................................26
Skill acquisition...................................................................................... 39
Skill, skill continuums and transfer of skills:.....................................................39
Impact of skill classification on structure of practice for learning:.....................42
Principles and theories of learning and performance:.......................................45
Use of guidance and feedback:........................................................................53
Memory models...................................................................................... 54
General information processing model:............................................................54
Efficiency of information processing:...............................................................60
3.1.3.1 Emergence of globalisation of sport in the 21st century................65
3.1.3.1.1 Pre-industrial (pre-1780)...................................................................65
3.1.3.1.2 Industrial and post-industrial (1780–1900).........................................67
3.1.3.1.3 Post World War II (1950 to present)...................................................71
3.1.3.2 The impact of sport on society and of society on sport..................75
3.1.3.2.1 Sociological theory applied to equal opportunities..............................75
Questions:.............................................................................................. 80
– note for the table of contents, ignore the page numbers- as all documents
were put into one x
,Cardio-respiratory system
Cardiovascular system
Heart pumps blood through vessels to deliver oxygen to the
working muscles and gather waste products. Also
responsible for heat (byproduct) transferring to the skin so
performer can cool down.
Heart is divided by a muscular wall called the septum. The
atria push blood down the ventricles with little force due to the thin muscular walls as
they need to contract with greater force in order to push blood out of the heart. Left
side of heart is larger as it needs to pump blood around body. But the right-side
pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs, which are closer proximity to heart.
Blood vessels of the heart:
Vena cava – deoxygenated blood to the right atrium
Pulmonary artery – leaves right ventricle with deoxygenated blood to go to
the lungs
Pulmonary vein – oxygenated blood to the left atrium
Aorta – leaves the left ventricle with oxygenated blood leading to the body
Valves of the heart:
4 main valves (bicuspid, tricuspid, semilunar)
Regulate blood flow vena cava → right atrium → right
Open to allow blood to pass through ventricle → pulmonary artery →
lungs → pulmonary vein → left
atrium → left ventricle → aorta →
body → vena cava
Circulatory networks:
Diastole = cardiac muscle relaxes, atria fill with blood – opening AV valves, blood
enters ventricles
Systole = atrial + ventricular muscles contract, AV valves close and blood is pushed
into arteries, semi lunar valves open until ventricles finish contracting.
Pulmonary circulation: Systematic circulation:
To carry blood between the heart and the To deliver oxygen and nutrients to the
lungs for gas exchange. rest of the body and remove wastes.
Deoxygenated (oxygen-poor) blood Oxygenated blood is pumped
flows from the right ventricle of the from the left ventricle through
heart through the pulmonary the aorta to all body tissues.
arteries to the lungs. Cells use the oxygen and
,Venous return
Venous return is the return of blood to the right side of the heart via the vena
cava.
Up to 70 per cent of the total volume of blood is contained in the veins at rest.
This means that a large amount of blood can be returned to the heart when
needed. During exercise, the amount of blood returning to the heart (venous
return) increases. This means that if more blood is being pumped back to the
heart, then more blood has to be pumped out, so stroke volume will increase - this
is Starling's Law.
Venous return mechanisms
Pressure of blood in the large veins is low making it difficult to return blood to the
heart. Also, the large lumen of the vein offers little resistance to blood flow. This
means that active mechanisms are needed to help venous return.
1) The skeletal muscle pump - when muscles contract and relax they change
shape. This change in shape means that the muscles press on the nearby veins
and cause a pumping effect and squeeze the blood towards the heart.
2) The respiratory pump - when muscles contract and relax during breathing in
and breathing out, pressure changes occur in the thoracic (chest) and abdominal
(stomach) cavities. These changes in pressure compress the nearby veins and
assist blood return to the heart.
3) Pocket valves - it is important that blood in the veins only flows in one
direction. The presence of valves ensures that this happens. This is because once
the blood has passed through the valves, they close to prevent the blood flowing
back.
Other factors that aid venous return are:
◦ A very thin layer of smooth muscle in walls of veins helps squeeze blood
back to the heart.
◦ Gravity helps the blood return to the heart from the upper body.
◦ The suction pump action of the heart.
It is important to maintain venous return during exercise to ensure the skeletal
muscles are receiving enough oxygen to meet the demands of the activity. At rest,
valves and the smooth muscle found in veins are sufficient enough to maintain
venous return. However, this is not the case during exercise. The demand for
oxygen is greater and the heart is beating faster, so the vascular system has to
help out too. Now the skeletal muscle pump and the respiratory pump are needed
to ensure venous return is maintained.
During exercise, this is possible as our skeletal muscles are constantly contracting
and breathing is elevated. Immediately after exercise, we still need to maintain
these mechanisms. Performing an active cool-down will keep the skeletal muscle
pump and respiratory pump working, therefore preventing blood pooling (blood
collecting in the veins).
The impact of blood pressure on venous return:
Systolic pressure is the pressure in the blood vessels when the ventricles are
contracting and diastolic pressure is the pressure in the blood vessels when the
, ventricles are relaxing.
When systolic blood pressure increases, there’s an increase in venous return, and
when systolic pressure decreases, there is a decrease in venous return.
The impact of a pressure gradient between the right atrium and the vena
cava on venous return:
Venous return (VR) is the flow of blood back to the heart in the veins, and under
normal circumstances venous return is the same as stroke volume (i.e. what goes
in comes out). Remember Starling's Law; if venous return increases, the heart
contracts with more force, which will increase the ejection fraction and therefore
the stroke volume. Venous return is determined by a pressure gradient. The
pressure gradient is the mean systemic pressure minus the right atrial pressure,
and resistance is the total peripheral vascular resistance.
An increase in venous pressure (PV) or a decrease in right atrial pressure (RA), or a
decrease in venous resistance (RV), leads to an increase in venous return, whereas
increasing right atrial pressure decreases venous return. The blood pressure in
both the right atrium (PRA) and the peripheral veins (PV) is normally very low, so
that the pressure gradient driving venous return from the peripheral veins to the
heart is also relatively low. Because of this, just small changes of blood pressure in
either the right atrium or the peripheral veins can cause a large change in the
pressure gradient, and therefore can significantly affect the return of blood to the
right atrium. For example, during inspiration, the small changes in blood pressure
between the atria and the abdominal cavity causes a large increase in the
pressure gradient driving venous return from the peripheral circulation to the right
atrium.
PE – PAPER 1 SECTION A //
APPLIED ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY
Table of Contents
Cardio-respiratory system.................................................................................2
Respiratory system.........................................................................................14
Neuromuscular system....................................................................................19
The Musculo-skeletal system and analysis of movement in physical activities....23
Energy systems..............................................................................................26
Skill acquisition...................................................................................... 39
Skill, skill continuums and transfer of skills:.....................................................39
Impact of skill classification on structure of practice for learning:.....................42
Principles and theories of learning and performance:.......................................45
Use of guidance and feedback:........................................................................53
Memory models...................................................................................... 54
General information processing model:............................................................54
Efficiency of information processing:...............................................................60
3.1.3.1 Emergence of globalisation of sport in the 21st century................65
3.1.3.1.1 Pre-industrial (pre-1780)...................................................................65
3.1.3.1.2 Industrial and post-industrial (1780–1900).........................................67
3.1.3.1.3 Post World War II (1950 to present)...................................................71
3.1.3.2 The impact of sport on society and of society on sport..................75
3.1.3.2.1 Sociological theory applied to equal opportunities..............................75
Questions:.............................................................................................. 80
– note for the table of contents, ignore the page numbers- as all documents
were put into one x
,Cardio-respiratory system
Cardiovascular system
Heart pumps blood through vessels to deliver oxygen to the
working muscles and gather waste products. Also
responsible for heat (byproduct) transferring to the skin so
performer can cool down.
Heart is divided by a muscular wall called the septum. The
atria push blood down the ventricles with little force due to the thin muscular walls as
they need to contract with greater force in order to push blood out of the heart. Left
side of heart is larger as it needs to pump blood around body. But the right-side
pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs, which are closer proximity to heart.
Blood vessels of the heart:
Vena cava – deoxygenated blood to the right atrium
Pulmonary artery – leaves right ventricle with deoxygenated blood to go to
the lungs
Pulmonary vein – oxygenated blood to the left atrium
Aorta – leaves the left ventricle with oxygenated blood leading to the body
Valves of the heart:
4 main valves (bicuspid, tricuspid, semilunar)
Regulate blood flow vena cava → right atrium → right
Open to allow blood to pass through ventricle → pulmonary artery →
lungs → pulmonary vein → left
atrium → left ventricle → aorta →
body → vena cava
Circulatory networks:
Diastole = cardiac muscle relaxes, atria fill with blood – opening AV valves, blood
enters ventricles
Systole = atrial + ventricular muscles contract, AV valves close and blood is pushed
into arteries, semi lunar valves open until ventricles finish contracting.
Pulmonary circulation: Systematic circulation:
To carry blood between the heart and the To deliver oxygen and nutrients to the
lungs for gas exchange. rest of the body and remove wastes.
Deoxygenated (oxygen-poor) blood Oxygenated blood is pumped
flows from the right ventricle of the from the left ventricle through
heart through the pulmonary the aorta to all body tissues.
arteries to the lungs. Cells use the oxygen and
,Venous return
Venous return is the return of blood to the right side of the heart via the vena
cava.
Up to 70 per cent of the total volume of blood is contained in the veins at rest.
This means that a large amount of blood can be returned to the heart when
needed. During exercise, the amount of blood returning to the heart (venous
return) increases. This means that if more blood is being pumped back to the
heart, then more blood has to be pumped out, so stroke volume will increase - this
is Starling's Law.
Venous return mechanisms
Pressure of blood in the large veins is low making it difficult to return blood to the
heart. Also, the large lumen of the vein offers little resistance to blood flow. This
means that active mechanisms are needed to help venous return.
1) The skeletal muscle pump - when muscles contract and relax they change
shape. This change in shape means that the muscles press on the nearby veins
and cause a pumping effect and squeeze the blood towards the heart.
2) The respiratory pump - when muscles contract and relax during breathing in
and breathing out, pressure changes occur in the thoracic (chest) and abdominal
(stomach) cavities. These changes in pressure compress the nearby veins and
assist blood return to the heart.
3) Pocket valves - it is important that blood in the veins only flows in one
direction. The presence of valves ensures that this happens. This is because once
the blood has passed through the valves, they close to prevent the blood flowing
back.
Other factors that aid venous return are:
◦ A very thin layer of smooth muscle in walls of veins helps squeeze blood
back to the heart.
◦ Gravity helps the blood return to the heart from the upper body.
◦ The suction pump action of the heart.
It is important to maintain venous return during exercise to ensure the skeletal
muscles are receiving enough oxygen to meet the demands of the activity. At rest,
valves and the smooth muscle found in veins are sufficient enough to maintain
venous return. However, this is not the case during exercise. The demand for
oxygen is greater and the heart is beating faster, so the vascular system has to
help out too. Now the skeletal muscle pump and the respiratory pump are needed
to ensure venous return is maintained.
During exercise, this is possible as our skeletal muscles are constantly contracting
and breathing is elevated. Immediately after exercise, we still need to maintain
these mechanisms. Performing an active cool-down will keep the skeletal muscle
pump and respiratory pump working, therefore preventing blood pooling (blood
collecting in the veins).
The impact of blood pressure on venous return:
Systolic pressure is the pressure in the blood vessels when the ventricles are
contracting and diastolic pressure is the pressure in the blood vessels when the
, ventricles are relaxing.
When systolic blood pressure increases, there’s an increase in venous return, and
when systolic pressure decreases, there is a decrease in venous return.
The impact of a pressure gradient between the right atrium and the vena
cava on venous return:
Venous return (VR) is the flow of blood back to the heart in the veins, and under
normal circumstances venous return is the same as stroke volume (i.e. what goes
in comes out). Remember Starling's Law; if venous return increases, the heart
contracts with more force, which will increase the ejection fraction and therefore
the stroke volume. Venous return is determined by a pressure gradient. The
pressure gradient is the mean systemic pressure minus the right atrial pressure,
and resistance is the total peripheral vascular resistance.
An increase in venous pressure (PV) or a decrease in right atrial pressure (RA), or a
decrease in venous resistance (RV), leads to an increase in venous return, whereas
increasing right atrial pressure decreases venous return. The blood pressure in
both the right atrium (PRA) and the peripheral veins (PV) is normally very low, so
that the pressure gradient driving venous return from the peripheral veins to the
heart is also relatively low. Because of this, just small changes of blood pressure in
either the right atrium or the peripheral veins can cause a large change in the
pressure gradient, and therefore can significantly affect the return of blood to the
right atrium. For example, during inspiration, the small changes in blood pressure
between the atria and the abdominal cavity causes a large increase in the
pressure gradient driving venous return from the peripheral circulation to the right
atrium.
