Lecture 1: The rise of the Indo-Pacific and the evolving regional order
Key concepts
Ontology: Views on the nature of reality
Realism: Reality exists outside of human perception and is governed by universal laws. The
truth is objective and universal, which is discoverable by people.
o Example: This realist ontology is reflected in the assumption that an objective power
structure exists in the international system. A clear Indo-Pacific example is Japan’s
military modernization in response to China’s growing material capabilities.
Constructivism: Reality is subjective and socially constructed; this means that the truth is
contextual and relative and depends on cultural perspectives.
o Example: A clear illustration is that the idea ‘Asia’ is not a natural geographic category
but a socially constructed one. Where European scholars actively shaped the
definition of Asia through mapping, classification, and discourse, creating boundaries
and regional identities that did not previously exist in the same form.
Epistemology: Views on the nature of knowledge (way of acquiring knowledge)
(Post-)positivism: knowledge is objective, empirical, and verifiable. It is measurable through
data and universal truths.
o Example: Military data, such as China’s naval expansion, is used to explain and
predict shifts in regional power.
Interpretivism: knowledge is subjective, contextual, and socially constructed. Reality is
shaped by cultural and individual contacts with truths varying by perspective.
o Example: A clear illustration is how China interprets the South China Sea not simply
as a strategic space but as part of a historical narrative of national rejuvenation and
past humiliation. This interpretation shapes China’s behavior far more than material
data alone.
Region-making through enculturation: A process by which regions are actively constructed through
shared cultural practises, historical narratives, norms, and identity formation. They are not natural or
fixed but emerge from social interaction, meaning-making, and cultural framing.
Example: This is seen in ‘Southeast Asia,’ which was constructed through colonialism and the
ASEAN. Colonial powers created borders and administrative units that later became the
foundations of modern states. Before ASEAN, the region lacked a strong shared identity, but
these colonial boundaries provided the structural basis for later regional institutions. Through
repeated diplomatic practices, norms like the ASEAN way, and shared narratives of post-
colonial solidarity, Southeast Asia became understood as a coherent region.
Tributary system/Sino-centric order: East Asia (1800) was built around a hierarchical system with
China at the center and neighboring states as tributaries.
Mandala system: Southeast Asia (1800) was a group of loosely connected kingdoms with
overlapping spheres of influence.
Developmentalism: The idea that the state should actively drive economic growth. The state directs
investment, protects key industries, and coordinates long-term industrial strategy.
Example: The government in South Korea guided industrialization by supporting chaebols like
Samsung and Hyundai, using targeted subsidies, export promotion, and strict industrial
planning.
,Post-colonial states: States that emerged after the end of the European colonial rule. They are
shaped by imperial histories, contested borders, mixed influences, and the need to build strong state
institutions after independence. They often face internal and external threats.
Example: India is a classic post-colonial state. When it gained independence in 1947, it
inherited colonial borders, a deeply divided society, and a weak administrative structure. The
new state had to manage internal conflicts (Kashmir), external threats (Pakistan, China), and
the challenge of building a modern bureaucracy out of colonial institutions.
Pan-Asianism: The idea that Asian people share a common identity, history, and destiny and should
cooperate to resist Western domination and promote Asian solidarity. It is a part of the cultural
response to Western domination.
Example: After WWII, leaders such as Nehru revived Pan-Asianism through events like the
1947 Asian Relations Conference and the 1955 Bandung Conference, where newly
independent Asian and African states gathered to promote solidarity, anti-colonialism, and
cooperation. Your lecture notes highlight this revival.
Non-aligned movement: Coalition of states formed during the Cold War that chose not to align with
either the US or the Soviet Union. Instead, they sought autonomy, anti-colonial solidarity, and an
independent foreign policy.
Example: Leaders argued that newly independent states should not be forced into Cold War
blocs but should instead pursue strategic autonomy and support global decolonization. For
Asian states, NAM was a continuation of the spirit of the Bandung Conference (1955), where
29 Asian and African countries met to oppose colonialism, racism, and great power
domination.
Key questions
Key characteristics of post-colonial states:
Internal threat prioritization: Prioritizes internal threats over external threats to survive.
Internal stability is seen as more important than external sovereignty;
Contested, ambiguous borders: Were drawn during colonialism, but they do not always
match the cultural or historical realities;
Mixed historical influences: Shaped by imperial rule, post-WWII modernization, global
liberal norms, and local traditions;
Weak initial institutions: Colonial administrations were not designed for self-rule, so states
had to build bureaucracies from scratch;
Dual pressures: Must manage both internal fragmentations and external geopolitical threats.
Examples of how Asian states have contributed to rational state building:
Rational state building: Adopting a Western, modern, bureaucratic, centralized style of a
model of a state
Example: Japan – Meiji Restoration, which built a modern bureaucracy and adopted Western
legal and educational systems, which became a model for later Asian states.
,Origins and regional formation processes of:
Asia: Defined by Europa in a way that served European identity and colonial power, it is a
European constructed region, not a natural geographic unit.
East Asia: This was a Sino-centric order. But now these East Asia major powers are all
sovereign and separate and interact through institutions like ASEAN+3.
Southeast Asia: This was a mandala system, but colonialism later imposed fixed borders
and administrative units. They now have built a shared identity through ASEAN.
, South Asia: No permanent, stable region with fixed borders. It alternated between attempts
by subcontinental empires to unify the region and periods dominated by smaller, coexisting
kingdoms;
Asia-Pacific: Cold War construction around building US alliances and economic cooperation;
they are now a maritime and trade-focused region in the APEC;
Indo-Pacific: A 21st-century strategic region linking the Indian and Pacific Oceans, it reflects
efforts to balance China’s rise and reshape regional order.
Key concepts
Ontology: Views on the nature of reality
Realism: Reality exists outside of human perception and is governed by universal laws. The
truth is objective and universal, which is discoverable by people.
o Example: This realist ontology is reflected in the assumption that an objective power
structure exists in the international system. A clear Indo-Pacific example is Japan’s
military modernization in response to China’s growing material capabilities.
Constructivism: Reality is subjective and socially constructed; this means that the truth is
contextual and relative and depends on cultural perspectives.
o Example: A clear illustration is that the idea ‘Asia’ is not a natural geographic category
but a socially constructed one. Where European scholars actively shaped the
definition of Asia through mapping, classification, and discourse, creating boundaries
and regional identities that did not previously exist in the same form.
Epistemology: Views on the nature of knowledge (way of acquiring knowledge)
(Post-)positivism: knowledge is objective, empirical, and verifiable. It is measurable through
data and universal truths.
o Example: Military data, such as China’s naval expansion, is used to explain and
predict shifts in regional power.
Interpretivism: knowledge is subjective, contextual, and socially constructed. Reality is
shaped by cultural and individual contacts with truths varying by perspective.
o Example: A clear illustration is how China interprets the South China Sea not simply
as a strategic space but as part of a historical narrative of national rejuvenation and
past humiliation. This interpretation shapes China’s behavior far more than material
data alone.
Region-making through enculturation: A process by which regions are actively constructed through
shared cultural practises, historical narratives, norms, and identity formation. They are not natural or
fixed but emerge from social interaction, meaning-making, and cultural framing.
Example: This is seen in ‘Southeast Asia,’ which was constructed through colonialism and the
ASEAN. Colonial powers created borders and administrative units that later became the
foundations of modern states. Before ASEAN, the region lacked a strong shared identity, but
these colonial boundaries provided the structural basis for later regional institutions. Through
repeated diplomatic practices, norms like the ASEAN way, and shared narratives of post-
colonial solidarity, Southeast Asia became understood as a coherent region.
Tributary system/Sino-centric order: East Asia (1800) was built around a hierarchical system with
China at the center and neighboring states as tributaries.
Mandala system: Southeast Asia (1800) was a group of loosely connected kingdoms with
overlapping spheres of influence.
Developmentalism: The idea that the state should actively drive economic growth. The state directs
investment, protects key industries, and coordinates long-term industrial strategy.
Example: The government in South Korea guided industrialization by supporting chaebols like
Samsung and Hyundai, using targeted subsidies, export promotion, and strict industrial
planning.
,Post-colonial states: States that emerged after the end of the European colonial rule. They are
shaped by imperial histories, contested borders, mixed influences, and the need to build strong state
institutions after independence. They often face internal and external threats.
Example: India is a classic post-colonial state. When it gained independence in 1947, it
inherited colonial borders, a deeply divided society, and a weak administrative structure. The
new state had to manage internal conflicts (Kashmir), external threats (Pakistan, China), and
the challenge of building a modern bureaucracy out of colonial institutions.
Pan-Asianism: The idea that Asian people share a common identity, history, and destiny and should
cooperate to resist Western domination and promote Asian solidarity. It is a part of the cultural
response to Western domination.
Example: After WWII, leaders such as Nehru revived Pan-Asianism through events like the
1947 Asian Relations Conference and the 1955 Bandung Conference, where newly
independent Asian and African states gathered to promote solidarity, anti-colonialism, and
cooperation. Your lecture notes highlight this revival.
Non-aligned movement: Coalition of states formed during the Cold War that chose not to align with
either the US or the Soviet Union. Instead, they sought autonomy, anti-colonial solidarity, and an
independent foreign policy.
Example: Leaders argued that newly independent states should not be forced into Cold War
blocs but should instead pursue strategic autonomy and support global decolonization. For
Asian states, NAM was a continuation of the spirit of the Bandung Conference (1955), where
29 Asian and African countries met to oppose colonialism, racism, and great power
domination.
Key questions
Key characteristics of post-colonial states:
Internal threat prioritization: Prioritizes internal threats over external threats to survive.
Internal stability is seen as more important than external sovereignty;
Contested, ambiguous borders: Were drawn during colonialism, but they do not always
match the cultural or historical realities;
Mixed historical influences: Shaped by imperial rule, post-WWII modernization, global
liberal norms, and local traditions;
Weak initial institutions: Colonial administrations were not designed for self-rule, so states
had to build bureaucracies from scratch;
Dual pressures: Must manage both internal fragmentations and external geopolitical threats.
Examples of how Asian states have contributed to rational state building:
Rational state building: Adopting a Western, modern, bureaucratic, centralized style of a
model of a state
Example: Japan – Meiji Restoration, which built a modern bureaucracy and adopted Western
legal and educational systems, which became a model for later Asian states.
,Origins and regional formation processes of:
Asia: Defined by Europa in a way that served European identity and colonial power, it is a
European constructed region, not a natural geographic unit.
East Asia: This was a Sino-centric order. But now these East Asia major powers are all
sovereign and separate and interact through institutions like ASEAN+3.
Southeast Asia: This was a mandala system, but colonialism later imposed fixed borders
and administrative units. They now have built a shared identity through ASEAN.
, South Asia: No permanent, stable region with fixed borders. It alternated between attempts
by subcontinental empires to unify the region and periods dominated by smaller, coexisting
kingdoms;
Asia-Pacific: Cold War construction around building US alliances and economic cooperation;
they are now a maritime and trade-focused region in the APEC;
Indo-Pacific: A 21st-century strategic region linking the Indian and Pacific Oceans, it reflects
efforts to balance China’s rise and reshape regional order.
