History Coursework –NAME – Candidate Number -Centre Number
Asses the causes of
the Sharpeville
Massacre.
Word Count: 4,086
The 21 March 1960 Sharpeville Massacre has been simultaneously described as ‘brutal’ 1,
‘callous’ 2and a ‘mass disobedience campaign’3. Grobler claims the African National
Congress (ANC) and Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) rivalry was responsible and Ross asserts
their rivalry meant they failed to anticipate the violent massacre. Yet Frankel and Lodge claim
South African Police (SAP) brutality caused the massacre when the ANC and PAC had
planned a campaign. However, Thompson and Dubow are most credible as they acknowledge
the underlying cause of unrest: apartheid’s repressive legislation. The evidence in this
argument is unwavering in demonstrating that overall, apartheid’s repressive legislation
caused the Sharpeville Massacre.
1
Phillip H. Frankel, An Ordinary Atrocity (Yale University Press 2001), p. 11
2
Tom Lodge, Sharpeville: an apartheid massacre and its consequences (Oxford University
Press 2011), p. 107
3
Irving Kaplan, Area handbook for the Republic of South Africa, (Washington 1971), p. 92
1
,ANC and PAC Rivalry
When examining the 1960 Sharpeville Massacre, there is a historical basis that it was caused
by the ANC and PAC rivalry. While they had intended for Sharpeville to be a pass law
campaign, their rivalry caused a massacre. Grobler supports this, claiming the massacre
occurred ‘because the PAC knew the ANC was planning a similar campaign’ and ‘was
determined to claim the limelight as the first organisation to launch a pass campaign’. 4 Ross
echoes this noting the ANC and PAC were ‘driven [to organise the Sharpeville Massacre]
largely by their need to compete with each other’, hence ‘they seriously underestimated the
power and ruthlessness of the White run state’,5 suggesting the organisations failed to
anticipate the violent massacre. Ample evidence supports this such as, the PAC breaking
away from the ANC in 1959, a year before Sharpeville, due to ideological differences with a
formidable number of ANC members moving to strengthen the PAC, including Sobukwe who
had been active in revitalising the ANC,6 and encouraging more active resistance. The PAC
only announced the pass law campaign (18 March 1960), 3 days before the massacre, while
the ANC announced a series of protests for 31 March 1960. 7 This strengthens the argument
that organisational rivalry caused the Sharpeville Massacre as the PAC’s late announcement
was in attempt to claim the “limelight”, excluding the ANC. This rivalry caused the massacre
as the PAC attracted the South African youth due to its action-based campaign, potentially
being perceived as aggressive, as over 40% of the population accounted for the youth (under
18s)8. The PAC was prepared to manipulate youth gangs to aid in persuading residents of
4
LT Ledwaba, ‘A history of socio economic change in Sharpeville, South Africa, 1940-
202s’, P.193, Accessed at: content on 22/03/26
5
LT Ledwaba, ‘A history of socio economic change in Sharpeville, South Africa, 1940-
202s’, P.194, Accessed at: content on 22/03/26
6
Bishopsgate Institute, Accessed at: Pan-Africanist Congress of Azania | Bishopsgate
Institute on 23/03/2026
7
Peter Clements, South Africa, 1948-94: From apartheid state to ‘rainbow nation’,(Hodder
Education,2018), Chapter 2.1. Resistance to apartheid and govt reaction 1960-61, p. 41
8
Peter Clements, South Africa, 1948-94: From apartheid state to ‘rainbow nation’,
Chapter 2.1. Resistance to apartheid and govt reaction 1960-61, p. 41
2
, Sharpeville to cooperate in their activities. This is confirmed by youths moving on the streets
and a policeman being stabbed on the night before the massacre (20 March 1960). 9 Therefore,
Grobler and Ross’ assertion that the ANC and PAC rivalry caused the massacre is highly
convincing.
Furthermore, contemporary sources of the time support Grobler and Ross’s claim that the
ANC and PAC rivalry caused the Sharpeville Massacre. Reverend Ambrose Reeves recalls
the day of the massacre in his article ‘The Sharpeville Massacre – A watershed in South
Africa’ where he notes that much earlier in the day ‘members of the PAC prevented the bus
drivers going on duty with the result that there were no buses to take people to work’ and
other members ‘threatened to burn their passes or lay hands on them if they did not turn
back’10, stressing the aggression the PAC was prepared to use. Their rivalry towards the ANC
meant they were willing to do anything to attract mass support, supporting Grobler and Ross’
claim of their rivalry causing the massacre. This historical account by Reeves with the origin
of 9 November 2011 adds credibility by presenting a retelling of the events, revealing the
PAC’s intentions. Originating from an Anglican Bishop of Johannesburg, adds to the source’s
reliability as he was an opponent of the apartheid regime particularly the Sharpeville
Massacre to the extent in which he was deported from the country for actively speaking out.11
His anti-apartheid activism makes him more critical of the regime and his acknowledgement
of PAC intimidation strengthens his reliability as he is not glorifying their actions. There are
numerous pieces of evidence supporting this source like the PAC Task Force distributing
pamphlets across Sharpeville instructing people to present themselves for arrest and attract a
large following, their door to door campaign being an attempt to convince people to join their
9
Rosemary Rees, Searching for rights and freedoms in the 20th century, (Pearson
Education Limited, 2015), Chapter 5: Why did opposition to Apartheid increase 1960-61?,
p. 313
10
Reverend Ambrose Reeves, ‘The Sharpeville Massacre – A watershed in South Africa’,
(2011) Accessed at: 65-25A-6F_upload.pdf on 22/03/26
11
Britannica, Accessed at: Ambrose Reeves | Victorian Era, Anglican Church, Bishop |
Britannica on 22/03/26
3
Asses the causes of
the Sharpeville
Massacre.
Word Count: 4,086
The 21 March 1960 Sharpeville Massacre has been simultaneously described as ‘brutal’ 1,
‘callous’ 2and a ‘mass disobedience campaign’3. Grobler claims the African National
Congress (ANC) and Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) rivalry was responsible and Ross asserts
their rivalry meant they failed to anticipate the violent massacre. Yet Frankel and Lodge claim
South African Police (SAP) brutality caused the massacre when the ANC and PAC had
planned a campaign. However, Thompson and Dubow are most credible as they acknowledge
the underlying cause of unrest: apartheid’s repressive legislation. The evidence in this
argument is unwavering in demonstrating that overall, apartheid’s repressive legislation
caused the Sharpeville Massacre.
1
Phillip H. Frankel, An Ordinary Atrocity (Yale University Press 2001), p. 11
2
Tom Lodge, Sharpeville: an apartheid massacre and its consequences (Oxford University
Press 2011), p. 107
3
Irving Kaplan, Area handbook for the Republic of South Africa, (Washington 1971), p. 92
1
,ANC and PAC Rivalry
When examining the 1960 Sharpeville Massacre, there is a historical basis that it was caused
by the ANC and PAC rivalry. While they had intended for Sharpeville to be a pass law
campaign, their rivalry caused a massacre. Grobler supports this, claiming the massacre
occurred ‘because the PAC knew the ANC was planning a similar campaign’ and ‘was
determined to claim the limelight as the first organisation to launch a pass campaign’. 4 Ross
echoes this noting the ANC and PAC were ‘driven [to organise the Sharpeville Massacre]
largely by their need to compete with each other’, hence ‘they seriously underestimated the
power and ruthlessness of the White run state’,5 suggesting the organisations failed to
anticipate the violent massacre. Ample evidence supports this such as, the PAC breaking
away from the ANC in 1959, a year before Sharpeville, due to ideological differences with a
formidable number of ANC members moving to strengthen the PAC, including Sobukwe who
had been active in revitalising the ANC,6 and encouraging more active resistance. The PAC
only announced the pass law campaign (18 March 1960), 3 days before the massacre, while
the ANC announced a series of protests for 31 March 1960. 7 This strengthens the argument
that organisational rivalry caused the Sharpeville Massacre as the PAC’s late announcement
was in attempt to claim the “limelight”, excluding the ANC. This rivalry caused the massacre
as the PAC attracted the South African youth due to its action-based campaign, potentially
being perceived as aggressive, as over 40% of the population accounted for the youth (under
18s)8. The PAC was prepared to manipulate youth gangs to aid in persuading residents of
4
LT Ledwaba, ‘A history of socio economic change in Sharpeville, South Africa, 1940-
202s’, P.193, Accessed at: content on 22/03/26
5
LT Ledwaba, ‘A history of socio economic change in Sharpeville, South Africa, 1940-
202s’, P.194, Accessed at: content on 22/03/26
6
Bishopsgate Institute, Accessed at: Pan-Africanist Congress of Azania | Bishopsgate
Institute on 23/03/2026
7
Peter Clements, South Africa, 1948-94: From apartheid state to ‘rainbow nation’,(Hodder
Education,2018), Chapter 2.1. Resistance to apartheid and govt reaction 1960-61, p. 41
8
Peter Clements, South Africa, 1948-94: From apartheid state to ‘rainbow nation’,
Chapter 2.1. Resistance to apartheid and govt reaction 1960-61, p. 41
2
, Sharpeville to cooperate in their activities. This is confirmed by youths moving on the streets
and a policeman being stabbed on the night before the massacre (20 March 1960). 9 Therefore,
Grobler and Ross’ assertion that the ANC and PAC rivalry caused the massacre is highly
convincing.
Furthermore, contemporary sources of the time support Grobler and Ross’s claim that the
ANC and PAC rivalry caused the Sharpeville Massacre. Reverend Ambrose Reeves recalls
the day of the massacre in his article ‘The Sharpeville Massacre – A watershed in South
Africa’ where he notes that much earlier in the day ‘members of the PAC prevented the bus
drivers going on duty with the result that there were no buses to take people to work’ and
other members ‘threatened to burn their passes or lay hands on them if they did not turn
back’10, stressing the aggression the PAC was prepared to use. Their rivalry towards the ANC
meant they were willing to do anything to attract mass support, supporting Grobler and Ross’
claim of their rivalry causing the massacre. This historical account by Reeves with the origin
of 9 November 2011 adds credibility by presenting a retelling of the events, revealing the
PAC’s intentions. Originating from an Anglican Bishop of Johannesburg, adds to the source’s
reliability as he was an opponent of the apartheid regime particularly the Sharpeville
Massacre to the extent in which he was deported from the country for actively speaking out.11
His anti-apartheid activism makes him more critical of the regime and his acknowledgement
of PAC intimidation strengthens his reliability as he is not glorifying their actions. There are
numerous pieces of evidence supporting this source like the PAC Task Force distributing
pamphlets across Sharpeville instructing people to present themselves for arrest and attract a
large following, their door to door campaign being an attempt to convince people to join their
9
Rosemary Rees, Searching for rights and freedoms in the 20th century, (Pearson
Education Limited, 2015), Chapter 5: Why did opposition to Apartheid increase 1960-61?,
p. 313
10
Reverend Ambrose Reeves, ‘The Sharpeville Massacre – A watershed in South Africa’,
(2011) Accessed at: 65-25A-6F_upload.pdf on 22/03/26
11
Britannica, Accessed at: Ambrose Reeves | Victorian Era, Anglican Church, Bishop |
Britannica on 22/03/26
3
