NURSING & PRE-MEDICAL NOTES
Anatomy & Physiology
1st Year / Foundations
Complete Study Guide | Pages 1–20
Topics Covered: Organisation of the Body • Cells & Tissues • Integumentary System
Skeletal System • Muscular System • Nervous System • Cardiovascular System
Respiratory System • Digestive System • Urinary System
,Page 1: Organisation of the Human Body
1.1 Levels of Organisation
The human body is organised from the simplest to the most complex level. Understanding this
hierarchy is fundamental to all nursing practice.
Level Definition Example
Chemical Atoms and molecules DNA, water, glucose
Cellular Basic unit of life Neuron, erythrocyte
Tissue Group of similar cells Epithelial tissue
Organ Two or more tissue types Heart, kidney
System Group of organs with shared Cardiovascular system
function
Organism All systems combined Human body
1.2 Body Cavities
• Dorsal cavity — contains the cranial (brain) and spinal cavities
• Ventral cavity — divided into thoracic and abdominopelvic
• Thoracic cavity — contains lungs, heart, trachea, oesophagus
• Abdominopelvic — contains digestive organs, kidneys, bladder, reproductive organs
1.3 Anatomical Terminology
All descriptions assume the standard Anatomical Position: body erect, arms at sides, palms facing
forward.
Term Meaning Example
Anterior/Ventral Front of body Sternum is anterior to heart
Posterior/Dorsal Back of body Spine is posterior to sternum
Superior Toward head Head is superior to neck
Inferior Away from head Feet are inferior to knees
Medial Toward midline Nose is medial to eyes
Lateral Away from midline Ears are lateral to nose
Proximal Closer to attachment Elbow is proximal to wrist
Distal Further from attachment Fingers are distal to wrist
,Page 2: The Cell — Structure & Function
2.1 Cell Theory
• All living organisms are composed of cells
• The cell is the basic unit of structure and function
• All cells arise from pre-existing cells
2.2 Cell Organelles
Organelle Function Clinical Relevance
Nucleus Controls cell activity; contains Mutations cause cancer
DNA
Mitochondria ATP (energy) production via Dysfunction causes metabolic
cellular respiration disease
Ribosomes Protein synthesis Antibiotic target (bacterial
ribosomes)
Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) Protein processing and Important in liver cells
transport
Golgi Apparatus Packaging and secretion Secretes hormones, enzymes
Lysosomes Digest waste, bacteria, dead Dysfunction: lysosomal storage
organelles disease
Cell Membrane Controls what enters/exits cell Drug receptor site
Cytoskeleton Maintains shape; aids Disrupted in some cancers
movement
2.3 Cell Membrane Transport
Passive Transport (No energy required)
• Diffusion — movement of molecules from high to low concentration
• Osmosis — diffusion of water across semi-permeable membrane
• Facilitated diffusion — uses carrier proteins; still down concentration gradient
Active Transport (Energy/ATP required)
• Primary active transport — Na+/K+ pump: 3 Na+ out, 2 K+ in
• Endocytosis — cell engulfs substances (e.g., phagocytosis by macrophages)
• Exocytosis — cell expels substances (e.g., neurotransmitter release)
2.4 Cell Division
• Mitosis — somatic cell division; produces 2 identical daughter cells (growth/repair)
• Meiosis — reproductive cell division; produces 4 haploid gametes
• Phases of Mitosis: Prophase → Metaphase → Anaphase → Telophase → Cytokinesis
, Page 3: Tissues
3.1 The Four Primary Tissue Types
Tissue Type Location Function
Epithelial Skin, lining of organs Protection, secretion, absorption
Connective Bone, blood, fat, cartilage Support, binding, transport
Muscular Skeletal, cardiac, smooth Movement, pumping, peristalsis
muscle
Nervous Brain, spinal cord, nerves Communication, coordination
3.2 Epithelial Tissue in Detail
Classification by Layers
• Simple — single layer; good for diffusion/filtration (e.g., alveoli, capillaries)
• Stratified — multiple layers; protection (e.g., skin, oesophagus)
• Pseudostratified — appears layered but is single layer (e.g., trachea)
Classification by Cell Shape
• Squamous — flat, scale-like cells
• Cuboidal — cube-shaped; secretion & absorption
• Columnar — tall, column-shaped; protection & secretion
3.3 Connective Tissue
• Loose connective tissue — areolar, adipose (fat), reticular
• Dense connective tissue — tendons, ligaments
• Specialised — bone (osseous), blood (vascular), cartilage
3.4 Tissue Repair (Wound Healing)
Clinical relevance: nurses monitor wound healing stages in all patients.
• Phase 1 – Haemostasis (0–2 hrs): vasoconstriction, platelet plug, fibrin clot
• Phase 2 – Inflammation (1–4 days): redness, heat, swelling, pain; WBCs clean wound
• Phase 3 – Proliferation (4–21 days): new capillaries, collagen laid down, granulation tissue
• Phase 4 – Remodelling (21 days–2 years): scar tissue strengthened
Anatomy & Physiology
1st Year / Foundations
Complete Study Guide | Pages 1–20
Topics Covered: Organisation of the Body • Cells & Tissues • Integumentary System
Skeletal System • Muscular System • Nervous System • Cardiovascular System
Respiratory System • Digestive System • Urinary System
,Page 1: Organisation of the Human Body
1.1 Levels of Organisation
The human body is organised from the simplest to the most complex level. Understanding this
hierarchy is fundamental to all nursing practice.
Level Definition Example
Chemical Atoms and molecules DNA, water, glucose
Cellular Basic unit of life Neuron, erythrocyte
Tissue Group of similar cells Epithelial tissue
Organ Two or more tissue types Heart, kidney
System Group of organs with shared Cardiovascular system
function
Organism All systems combined Human body
1.2 Body Cavities
• Dorsal cavity — contains the cranial (brain) and spinal cavities
• Ventral cavity — divided into thoracic and abdominopelvic
• Thoracic cavity — contains lungs, heart, trachea, oesophagus
• Abdominopelvic — contains digestive organs, kidneys, bladder, reproductive organs
1.3 Anatomical Terminology
All descriptions assume the standard Anatomical Position: body erect, arms at sides, palms facing
forward.
Term Meaning Example
Anterior/Ventral Front of body Sternum is anterior to heart
Posterior/Dorsal Back of body Spine is posterior to sternum
Superior Toward head Head is superior to neck
Inferior Away from head Feet are inferior to knees
Medial Toward midline Nose is medial to eyes
Lateral Away from midline Ears are lateral to nose
Proximal Closer to attachment Elbow is proximal to wrist
Distal Further from attachment Fingers are distal to wrist
,Page 2: The Cell — Structure & Function
2.1 Cell Theory
• All living organisms are composed of cells
• The cell is the basic unit of structure and function
• All cells arise from pre-existing cells
2.2 Cell Organelles
Organelle Function Clinical Relevance
Nucleus Controls cell activity; contains Mutations cause cancer
DNA
Mitochondria ATP (energy) production via Dysfunction causes metabolic
cellular respiration disease
Ribosomes Protein synthesis Antibiotic target (bacterial
ribosomes)
Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) Protein processing and Important in liver cells
transport
Golgi Apparatus Packaging and secretion Secretes hormones, enzymes
Lysosomes Digest waste, bacteria, dead Dysfunction: lysosomal storage
organelles disease
Cell Membrane Controls what enters/exits cell Drug receptor site
Cytoskeleton Maintains shape; aids Disrupted in some cancers
movement
2.3 Cell Membrane Transport
Passive Transport (No energy required)
• Diffusion — movement of molecules from high to low concentration
• Osmosis — diffusion of water across semi-permeable membrane
• Facilitated diffusion — uses carrier proteins; still down concentration gradient
Active Transport (Energy/ATP required)
• Primary active transport — Na+/K+ pump: 3 Na+ out, 2 K+ in
• Endocytosis — cell engulfs substances (e.g., phagocytosis by macrophages)
• Exocytosis — cell expels substances (e.g., neurotransmitter release)
2.4 Cell Division
• Mitosis — somatic cell division; produces 2 identical daughter cells (growth/repair)
• Meiosis — reproductive cell division; produces 4 haploid gametes
• Phases of Mitosis: Prophase → Metaphase → Anaphase → Telophase → Cytokinesis
, Page 3: Tissues
3.1 The Four Primary Tissue Types
Tissue Type Location Function
Epithelial Skin, lining of organs Protection, secretion, absorption
Connective Bone, blood, fat, cartilage Support, binding, transport
Muscular Skeletal, cardiac, smooth Movement, pumping, peristalsis
muscle
Nervous Brain, spinal cord, nerves Communication, coordination
3.2 Epithelial Tissue in Detail
Classification by Layers
• Simple — single layer; good for diffusion/filtration (e.g., alveoli, capillaries)
• Stratified — multiple layers; protection (e.g., skin, oesophagus)
• Pseudostratified — appears layered but is single layer (e.g., trachea)
Classification by Cell Shape
• Squamous — flat, scale-like cells
• Cuboidal — cube-shaped; secretion & absorption
• Columnar — tall, column-shaped; protection & secretion
3.3 Connective Tissue
• Loose connective tissue — areolar, adipose (fat), reticular
• Dense connective tissue — tendons, ligaments
• Specialised — bone (osseous), blood (vascular), cartilage
3.4 Tissue Repair (Wound Healing)
Clinical relevance: nurses monitor wound healing stages in all patients.
• Phase 1 – Haemostasis (0–2 hrs): vasoconstriction, platelet plug, fibrin clot
• Phase 2 – Inflammation (1–4 days): redness, heat, swelling, pain; WBCs clean wound
• Phase 3 – Proliferation (4–21 days): new capillaries, collagen laid down, granulation tissue
• Phase 4 – Remodelling (21 days–2 years): scar tissue strengthened
