NSG 4100 Exam 1 – Evidence-Based Practice &
Nursing Research 2026
1. A nurse researcher is developing a clinical question using PICOT format. Which element is
represented by the length of stay in a study comparing two wound care protocols?
A. Population
B. Intervention
C. Comparison
D. Outcome
Answer: D. Outcome
• A. Population: Incorrect, because population refers to the specific patient group (e.g., adults
with surgical wounds).
• B. Intervention: Incorrect, as intervention is the main treatment being studied (e.g., hydrocolloid
dressing).
• C. Comparison: Incorrect, because comparison is the alternative approach (e.g., saline gauze).
• D. Outcome: Correct, because outcome is the result measured, such as length of stay, infection
rate, or healing time.
2. A nurse asks, “In postoperative patients, how does early ambulation compared to bed rest affect
the incidence of deep vein thrombosis?” This question is an example of which type of inquiry?
A. Background question
B. Foreground question
C. Ethical question
D. Legal question
Answer: B. Foreground question
• A. Background question: Incorrect, because background questions ask for general knowledge
about a condition (e.g., What is DVT?).
• B. Foreground question: Correct, as it compares two specific interventions and focuses on a
specific patient population and outcome.
• C. Ethical question: Incorrect, because it does not involve moral principles or dilemmas.
, • D. Legal question: Incorrect, because it does not ask about legal standards or liability.
3. In evidence-based practice, what is the highest level of evidence for a therapy question?
A. Case-control study
B. Systematic review of randomized controlled trials (RCTs)
C. Expert opinion
D. Cohort study
Answer: B. Systematic review of randomized controlled trials (RCTs)
• A. Case-control study: Incorrect, this is a lower level of evidence because it is retrospective and
prone to bias.
• B. Systematic review of RCTs: Correct, it synthesizes multiple high-quality RCTs and provides the
strongest evidence.
• C. Expert opinion: Incorrect, it is the weakest level of evidence.
• D. Cohort study: Incorrect, it is observational and lower than RCTs in the hierarchy.
4. A study finds a statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) between two groups. Which
interpretation is most accurate?
A. The finding has clinical importance.
B. The null hypothesis is true.
C. The result is unlikely due to chance alone.
D. The study has no type I error risk.
Answer: C. The result is unlikely due to chance alone.
• A. Clinical importance: Incorrect, statistical significance does not guarantee clinical significance.
• B. Null hypothesis is true: Incorrect, a p < 0.05 suggests rejecting the null hypothesis.
• C. Unlikely due to chance: Correct, p < 0.05 means less than 5% probability the result is random.
• D. No type I error risk: Incorrect, there is always a risk of type I error (alpha = 0.05).
5. Which research design provides the strongest evidence for causality?
A. Cross-sectional study
B. Quasi-experimental design
C. Randomized controlled trial (RCT)
D. Qualitative descriptive study
Answer: C. Randomized controlled trial (RCT)
• A. Cross-sectional: Incorrect, it measures variables at one time point, cannot establish causality.
• B. Quasi-experimental: Incorrect, lacks randomization, increasing risk of confounding.
• C. RCT: Correct, randomization reduces bias and supports cause-effect conclusions.
• D. Qualitative: Incorrect, qualitative research explores experiences, not causality.
,6. A nurse is reading a research article. The abstract states, “A convenience sample of 200 adults with
heart failure was used.” What is the main limitation of convenience sampling?
A. It is too expensive to conduct.
B. It ensures equal representation of all subgroups.
C. It increases the risk of selection bias.
D. It always requires a power analysis.
Answer: C. It increases the risk of selection bias.
• A. Too expensive: Incorrect, convenience sampling is usually inexpensive.
• B. Equal representation: Incorrect, convenience samples often lack representativeness.
• C. Selection bias risk: Correct, because subjects are chosen based on availability, not randomly.
• D. Always requires power analysis: Incorrect, power analysis is not unique to convenience
sampling.
7. A nurse implements a new evidence-based protocol for pain management. To evaluate the change,
which outcome measure is considered a process indicator?
A. Patient-reported pain score
B. Number of falls post-procedure
C. Percentage of patients receiving pain assessment within 30 minutes of admission
D. Readmission rate for pain complications
Answer: C. Percentage of patients receiving pain assessment within 30 minutes of admission
• A. Pain score: Incorrect, this is a clinical outcome.
• B. Falls: Incorrect, this is a safety outcome.
• C. Pain assessment rate: Correct, process indicators measure adherence to recommended
actions.
• D. Readmission: Incorrect, this is a system outcome.
8. Which of the following is an example of a non-probability sampling method?
A. Simple random sampling
B. Stratified random sampling
C. Cluster sampling
D. Snowball sampling
Answer: D. Snowball sampling
• A. Simple random: Incorrect, this is probability sampling.
• B. Stratified random: Incorrect, this is probability sampling.
• C. Cluster: Incorrect, this is probability sampling.
• D. Snowball: Correct, participants recruit other participants, not random.
, 9. A study reports an odds ratio of 2.5 for developing pressure injuries when using standard
mattresses compared to advanced support surfaces. What does this mean?
A. The intervention increases risk by 2.5 times.
B. The risk is equal between groups.
C. The standard mattress group has 2.5 times higher odds of pressure injury.
D. The advanced support surface causes a 250% reduction in risk.
Answer: C. The standard mattress group has 2.5 times higher odds of pressure injury.
• A. Intervention increases risk: Incorrect, the odds ratio compares groups, not stating which is
intervention.
• B. Risk equal: Incorrect, 2.5 is not 1.0.
• C. Higher odds with standard mattress: Correct, odds > 1 indicates higher odds in the reference
group.
• D. 250% reduction: Incorrect, odds ratio >1 indicates increased odds, not reduction.
10. A nurse wants to find qualitative evidence on patients’ experiences with chemotherapy. Which
database is most appropriate?
A. CINAHL
B. PubMed
C. PsycINFO
D. Cochrane Library
Answer: A. CINAHL
• A. CINAHL: Correct, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature includes qualitative
nursing research.
• B. PubMed: Incorrect, primarily biomedical, less emphasis on qualitative nursing studies.
• C. PsycINFO: Incorrect, focuses on psychology, not primarily nursing.
• D. Cochrane: Incorrect, mainly systematic reviews of quantitative RCTs.
11. In a systematic review, the I² statistic is 85%. This indicates:
A. Low heterogeneity, suitable for meta-analysis
B. Moderate heterogeneity
C. High heterogeneity, caution needed in combining studies
D. No heterogeneity, perfect consistency
Answer: C. High heterogeneity, caution needed in combining studies
• A. Low heterogeneity: Incorrect, 85% is high.
• B. Moderate: Incorrect, moderate is 30-60%.
• C. High heterogeneity: Correct, >75% suggests substantial variation beyond chance.
• D. No heterogeneity: Incorrect, 0% would indicate no heterogeneity.
Nursing Research 2026
1. A nurse researcher is developing a clinical question using PICOT format. Which element is
represented by the length of stay in a study comparing two wound care protocols?
A. Population
B. Intervention
C. Comparison
D. Outcome
Answer: D. Outcome
• A. Population: Incorrect, because population refers to the specific patient group (e.g., adults
with surgical wounds).
• B. Intervention: Incorrect, as intervention is the main treatment being studied (e.g., hydrocolloid
dressing).
• C. Comparison: Incorrect, because comparison is the alternative approach (e.g., saline gauze).
• D. Outcome: Correct, because outcome is the result measured, such as length of stay, infection
rate, or healing time.
2. A nurse asks, “In postoperative patients, how does early ambulation compared to bed rest affect
the incidence of deep vein thrombosis?” This question is an example of which type of inquiry?
A. Background question
B. Foreground question
C. Ethical question
D. Legal question
Answer: B. Foreground question
• A. Background question: Incorrect, because background questions ask for general knowledge
about a condition (e.g., What is DVT?).
• B. Foreground question: Correct, as it compares two specific interventions and focuses on a
specific patient population and outcome.
• C. Ethical question: Incorrect, because it does not involve moral principles or dilemmas.
, • D. Legal question: Incorrect, because it does not ask about legal standards or liability.
3. In evidence-based practice, what is the highest level of evidence for a therapy question?
A. Case-control study
B. Systematic review of randomized controlled trials (RCTs)
C. Expert opinion
D. Cohort study
Answer: B. Systematic review of randomized controlled trials (RCTs)
• A. Case-control study: Incorrect, this is a lower level of evidence because it is retrospective and
prone to bias.
• B. Systematic review of RCTs: Correct, it synthesizes multiple high-quality RCTs and provides the
strongest evidence.
• C. Expert opinion: Incorrect, it is the weakest level of evidence.
• D. Cohort study: Incorrect, it is observational and lower than RCTs in the hierarchy.
4. A study finds a statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) between two groups. Which
interpretation is most accurate?
A. The finding has clinical importance.
B. The null hypothesis is true.
C. The result is unlikely due to chance alone.
D. The study has no type I error risk.
Answer: C. The result is unlikely due to chance alone.
• A. Clinical importance: Incorrect, statistical significance does not guarantee clinical significance.
• B. Null hypothesis is true: Incorrect, a p < 0.05 suggests rejecting the null hypothesis.
• C. Unlikely due to chance: Correct, p < 0.05 means less than 5% probability the result is random.
• D. No type I error risk: Incorrect, there is always a risk of type I error (alpha = 0.05).
5. Which research design provides the strongest evidence for causality?
A. Cross-sectional study
B. Quasi-experimental design
C. Randomized controlled trial (RCT)
D. Qualitative descriptive study
Answer: C. Randomized controlled trial (RCT)
• A. Cross-sectional: Incorrect, it measures variables at one time point, cannot establish causality.
• B. Quasi-experimental: Incorrect, lacks randomization, increasing risk of confounding.
• C. RCT: Correct, randomization reduces bias and supports cause-effect conclusions.
• D. Qualitative: Incorrect, qualitative research explores experiences, not causality.
,6. A nurse is reading a research article. The abstract states, “A convenience sample of 200 adults with
heart failure was used.” What is the main limitation of convenience sampling?
A. It is too expensive to conduct.
B. It ensures equal representation of all subgroups.
C. It increases the risk of selection bias.
D. It always requires a power analysis.
Answer: C. It increases the risk of selection bias.
• A. Too expensive: Incorrect, convenience sampling is usually inexpensive.
• B. Equal representation: Incorrect, convenience samples often lack representativeness.
• C. Selection bias risk: Correct, because subjects are chosen based on availability, not randomly.
• D. Always requires power analysis: Incorrect, power analysis is not unique to convenience
sampling.
7. A nurse implements a new evidence-based protocol for pain management. To evaluate the change,
which outcome measure is considered a process indicator?
A. Patient-reported pain score
B. Number of falls post-procedure
C. Percentage of patients receiving pain assessment within 30 minutes of admission
D. Readmission rate for pain complications
Answer: C. Percentage of patients receiving pain assessment within 30 minutes of admission
• A. Pain score: Incorrect, this is a clinical outcome.
• B. Falls: Incorrect, this is a safety outcome.
• C. Pain assessment rate: Correct, process indicators measure adherence to recommended
actions.
• D. Readmission: Incorrect, this is a system outcome.
8. Which of the following is an example of a non-probability sampling method?
A. Simple random sampling
B. Stratified random sampling
C. Cluster sampling
D. Snowball sampling
Answer: D. Snowball sampling
• A. Simple random: Incorrect, this is probability sampling.
• B. Stratified random: Incorrect, this is probability sampling.
• C. Cluster: Incorrect, this is probability sampling.
• D. Snowball: Correct, participants recruit other participants, not random.
, 9. A study reports an odds ratio of 2.5 for developing pressure injuries when using standard
mattresses compared to advanced support surfaces. What does this mean?
A. The intervention increases risk by 2.5 times.
B. The risk is equal between groups.
C. The standard mattress group has 2.5 times higher odds of pressure injury.
D. The advanced support surface causes a 250% reduction in risk.
Answer: C. The standard mattress group has 2.5 times higher odds of pressure injury.
• A. Intervention increases risk: Incorrect, the odds ratio compares groups, not stating which is
intervention.
• B. Risk equal: Incorrect, 2.5 is not 1.0.
• C. Higher odds with standard mattress: Correct, odds > 1 indicates higher odds in the reference
group.
• D. 250% reduction: Incorrect, odds ratio >1 indicates increased odds, not reduction.
10. A nurse wants to find qualitative evidence on patients’ experiences with chemotherapy. Which
database is most appropriate?
A. CINAHL
B. PubMed
C. PsycINFO
D. Cochrane Library
Answer: A. CINAHL
• A. CINAHL: Correct, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature includes qualitative
nursing research.
• B. PubMed: Incorrect, primarily biomedical, less emphasis on qualitative nursing studies.
• C. PsycINFO: Incorrect, focuses on psychology, not primarily nursing.
• D. Cochrane: Incorrect, mainly systematic reviews of quantitative RCTs.
11. In a systematic review, the I² statistic is 85%. This indicates:
A. Low heterogeneity, suitable for meta-analysis
B. Moderate heterogeneity
C. High heterogeneity, caution needed in combining studies
D. No heterogeneity, perfect consistency
Answer: C. High heterogeneity, caution needed in combining studies
• A. Low heterogeneity: Incorrect, 85% is high.
• B. Moderate: Incorrect, moderate is 30-60%.
• C. High heterogeneity: Correct, >75% suggests substantial variation beyond chance.
• D. No heterogeneity: Incorrect, 0% would indicate no heterogeneity.
