Physiology Notes
Lecture 1: Introduction to animal physiology
Characteristics of living organism
a) Organization
a. Autoregulation (homeostasis)
Regulate/ control and correct changes in internal/external environment to maintain
stability
(nervous system, endocrine system)
b) Irritability
a. Produce response towards stimuli which produce changes in the internal and
external environment
(nervous, endocrine, muscular system)
c) Contractility
a. Produce movement
(nervous, endocrine, muscular system)
d) Food requirement
a. Acquire food, digest, absorb and utilize food
(digestive, endocrine system)
e) Metabolism and growth
a. Produce energy from food sources and convert them to mechanic work (eg.
Movement)
b. Form complexes from simple substances absorbed
(cellular, digestive, endocrine, skeletal, muscular system)
f) Respiration
a. Obtain oxygen to oxidize food to produce energy and release carbon dioxide and
water in the process
(cellular, respiratory, cardiovascular, nervous system)
g) Excretion
a. Excrete metabolic waste substances and excess substances from the body
(renal, digestive, respiratory system)
h) Reproduction
a. Ability to mate and reproduce
(reproductive, endocrine system)
,Physiological systems
Digestive- digestion, absorption of nutrient
Renal- regulation of body fluid, excretion
Cardiovascular- nutrient transport and distribution
Respiratory- oxygen intake, carbon dioxide excretion
Neuromuscular- movement, integration, coordination
Endocrine- integration, coordination
Reproductive- multiplication
Lecture 2: Cell structure and characteristics
• Cell > tissue > organ > system
• Each cell has own function
• Able to acquire energy from carbs, lipid and protein
• Cell composition: (protoplasm)
o Water (75%)
o Electrolytes: K+, Na+, Ca2+, HCO3-, PO4-, Cl-
o Protein (10-2-%) – structural, enzyme, nucleoprotein
o Lipid (2-3%) – combine with protein to form semi permeable membrane
o Carbohydrate
• Membrane systems
o Plasma membrane
o Nuclear membrane (2 layers)
o Endoplasmic reticulum
o Golgi complex
o Mitochondria (2 layers)
o Lysosome
The endomembrane system
Eukaryotic cells
Membranes related either through direct physical contact or by transfer of vesicles (sac of
membrane)
Nucleus and nuclear envelope
Contains most of the genes (some gene located in mitochondria and chloroplast)
Size: abt 5 microns in diameter
Nuclear envelope- double membrane of 20-40nm apart
Nuclear pore complex allow large macromolecules and particles to pass through
, Nuclear side of the envelope is lined by the nuclear lamina, a network of intermediate filaments that
maintain the shape of the nucleus
DNA and associated proteins organized into chromatin (fibrous material) – diffused mass
Prepare to divide, chromatin fibres coil up to be seen as separate structures, chromosomes
Nucleolus= a region of densely stained fibres and granules adjoining chromatin
- rRNA is synthesized and assembled with proteins from the cytoplasm to form ribosomal
subunits
- subunits pass from nuclear pores to the cytoplasm, combine and form ribosome
Ribosome
Particles consisted of protein and rRNA
Function= protein synthesis
• Free - in cytosol, synthesize proteins that function within cytosol
• Bound - attached to the outside of ER or nuclear envelope: membrane, organelle or
secretory protein
• Both structurally identical, can alternate between two roles
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Consist of network of membranous tubules and sacs called cisternae (reservoir for a liquid)
Network interconnected- membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope and the cisternal space
of ER is continuous with the space between 2 membranes of nuclear envelope
Rough ER
- Ribosome attached
- Secretory protein, cell membrane protein, organelle protein
- Proteins targeted to determine location according to sorting signals
- Sorting signals are encoded in AA sequences or in the attached oligosaccharides
Smooth ER
- Synthesis of lipid (oil, phospholipids, steroids
- Glycogen metabolism in the liver cells
- Detoxification of drugs and poisons
- Store calcium for muscle contraction
Protein synthesis
- From bound ribosome threaded into cisternal space through a pore formed by a protein in
the ER membrane
- Protein folds into its native conformation
- An oligosaccharide attached to the protein = glycosylation
- Protein wrapped in the transport vesicles that bud from the ER
Lecture 1: Introduction to animal physiology
Characteristics of living organism
a) Organization
a. Autoregulation (homeostasis)
Regulate/ control and correct changes in internal/external environment to maintain
stability
(nervous system, endocrine system)
b) Irritability
a. Produce response towards stimuli which produce changes in the internal and
external environment
(nervous, endocrine, muscular system)
c) Contractility
a. Produce movement
(nervous, endocrine, muscular system)
d) Food requirement
a. Acquire food, digest, absorb and utilize food
(digestive, endocrine system)
e) Metabolism and growth
a. Produce energy from food sources and convert them to mechanic work (eg.
Movement)
b. Form complexes from simple substances absorbed
(cellular, digestive, endocrine, skeletal, muscular system)
f) Respiration
a. Obtain oxygen to oxidize food to produce energy and release carbon dioxide and
water in the process
(cellular, respiratory, cardiovascular, nervous system)
g) Excretion
a. Excrete metabolic waste substances and excess substances from the body
(renal, digestive, respiratory system)
h) Reproduction
a. Ability to mate and reproduce
(reproductive, endocrine system)
,Physiological systems
Digestive- digestion, absorption of nutrient
Renal- regulation of body fluid, excretion
Cardiovascular- nutrient transport and distribution
Respiratory- oxygen intake, carbon dioxide excretion
Neuromuscular- movement, integration, coordination
Endocrine- integration, coordination
Reproductive- multiplication
Lecture 2: Cell structure and characteristics
• Cell > tissue > organ > system
• Each cell has own function
• Able to acquire energy from carbs, lipid and protein
• Cell composition: (protoplasm)
o Water (75%)
o Electrolytes: K+, Na+, Ca2+, HCO3-, PO4-, Cl-
o Protein (10-2-%) – structural, enzyme, nucleoprotein
o Lipid (2-3%) – combine with protein to form semi permeable membrane
o Carbohydrate
• Membrane systems
o Plasma membrane
o Nuclear membrane (2 layers)
o Endoplasmic reticulum
o Golgi complex
o Mitochondria (2 layers)
o Lysosome
The endomembrane system
Eukaryotic cells
Membranes related either through direct physical contact or by transfer of vesicles (sac of
membrane)
Nucleus and nuclear envelope
Contains most of the genes (some gene located in mitochondria and chloroplast)
Size: abt 5 microns in diameter
Nuclear envelope- double membrane of 20-40nm apart
Nuclear pore complex allow large macromolecules and particles to pass through
, Nuclear side of the envelope is lined by the nuclear lamina, a network of intermediate filaments that
maintain the shape of the nucleus
DNA and associated proteins organized into chromatin (fibrous material) – diffused mass
Prepare to divide, chromatin fibres coil up to be seen as separate structures, chromosomes
Nucleolus= a region of densely stained fibres and granules adjoining chromatin
- rRNA is synthesized and assembled with proteins from the cytoplasm to form ribosomal
subunits
- subunits pass from nuclear pores to the cytoplasm, combine and form ribosome
Ribosome
Particles consisted of protein and rRNA
Function= protein synthesis
• Free - in cytosol, synthesize proteins that function within cytosol
• Bound - attached to the outside of ER or nuclear envelope: membrane, organelle or
secretory protein
• Both structurally identical, can alternate between two roles
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Consist of network of membranous tubules and sacs called cisternae (reservoir for a liquid)
Network interconnected- membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope and the cisternal space
of ER is continuous with the space between 2 membranes of nuclear envelope
Rough ER
- Ribosome attached
- Secretory protein, cell membrane protein, organelle protein
- Proteins targeted to determine location according to sorting signals
- Sorting signals are encoded in AA sequences or in the attached oligosaccharides
Smooth ER
- Synthesis of lipid (oil, phospholipids, steroids
- Glycogen metabolism in the liver cells
- Detoxification of drugs and poisons
- Store calcium for muscle contraction
Protein synthesis
- From bound ribosome threaded into cisternal space through a pore formed by a protein in
the ER membrane
- Protein folds into its native conformation
- An oligosaccharide attached to the protein = glycosylation
- Protein wrapped in the transport vesicles that bud from the ER
