Women, Caste and Reform
Introduction: Society in the Early 19th Century
Status of Women (200 years ago): Most girls were married off at a
young age, and both Hindu and Muslim men could have multiple wives.
Widows were expected to practice sati (self-immolation on the
husband’s funeral pyre) and were praised. Their rights to own property
were restricted, and they had almost no access to education. A popular
belief was that an educated woman would become a widow. The
people feared that schools would take girls away from home, which
was unsafe and not appropriate. Believed that girls should learn
household work, not study, as it would make them disobedient or
independent. And it was against tradition and religious norms.
Caste Divisions: Apart from gender, society was sharply divided by
caste. At the top were Brahmans and Kshatriyas (“upper castes”),
followed by Vaishyas (traders, moneylenders) and Shudras (peasants,
artisans). Those performing “polluting” jobs (like cleaning, carrying
carcasses, tanning leather) were treated as the lowest group, later
termed Dalits; they were labeled “untouchable” and faced rigid
segregation. They could not enter temples, draw water from wells used
by higher castes, or even use the same ponds. They were regarded by
the upper castes as inferior human beings.
Working Towards Change
Debates and the Print Revolution: In the early 1800s, books,
newspapers, pamphlets, and magazines became cheaper and more
widely available, allowing ordinary people to read and express their
ideas publicly. Social, political, economic, and religious issues were
debated in new urban centers, reaching a wider audience (including
men and sometimes women) and sparking movements for social
change.
Indian Reformers: These social reformers believed that Indian
society needed to abolish unjust social practices and adopt progress.
One such reformer was Raja Rammohun Roy (1772–1833), who
founded the Brahmo Sabha (later Brahmo Samaj) in Calcutta in 1828.
Reformers like Roy argued that society could be improved by
abandoning outdated and harmful customs and embracing modern
western ideas and justice for freedom and equality of women.
Changing the Lives of Widows
Rammohun Roy and Sati: Rammohun Roy was deeply moved by the
plight of widows and began a campaign to end sati (the practice of
widows immolating themselves). A scholar of Sanskrit, Persian and
other languages, Roy used ancient sacred texts to show that widow-
, burning had no scriptural basis, challenging the religious rationale for
sati. Largely due to these efforts, the colonial government banned
the practice of sati in 1829 . This was one of the first major legal
reforms in colonial India.
Strategy of Citing Tradition: whenever they challenged a
harmful tradition, they cited ancient texts to back their
argument, claiming the current practice deviated from original
tradition. This approach reassured people that reform was not entirely
“Western” or anti-Indian, but rather a restoration of true values.
He began a strong campaign against the practices of sati and
argued that it was inhumane, unjust, and held no support in
the sacred text.
He wrote articles to British officials and urged the government
to intervene and pass a law to ban sati.
His efforts led to the passing of the Sati Regulation Act of
1829, which allowed the practices under the governor general
Lord William Bentinck.
Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar and Widow Remarriage: The reformer
Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar in Bengal carried forward the battle for
widows. Using ancient Sanskrit scripture, Vidyasagar showed that
widows could remarry, and the Widow Remarriage Act, 1856, was
passed. Groups boycotted Vidyasagar for going against social norms.
In the Telugu-speaking region (Madras Presidency), Veerasalingam
Pantulu formed an association to encourage widow remarriage.
Reformers in Bombay (like those in the Paramhansa Mandali) also
campaigned to let widows marry again. In northern India, Swami
Dayanand Saraswati, who founded the Arya Samaj in 1875,
supported widow remarriage as part of his broader reform of Hinduism.
Despite these efforts, actual widow remarriages remained few, as
widows who remarried were often socially shunned by conservative
families.
Girls Begin Going to School
Vidyasagar in Calcutta and others in Bombay set up some of the first
schools for girls in the mid-19th century.
Resistance to Girls’ Schools: There was also a prejudice that public
education would corrupt girls’ minds and morals. In fact, a prevalent
notion was that “educated girls might refuse to obey elders or desire
unsuitable freedoms,” reflecting the conservative mindset. Typically, a
liberal father or husband would teach the girl, or she might learn to
read secretly on her own. (E.g., Rashsundari Debi in Bengal secretly
learned to read and write by herself at night).
By the later 19th century, reform organizations started founding formal
schools for girls. The Arya Samaj (Dayanand Saraswati’s movement)
established girls’ schools in Punjab, and Jyotirao Phule opened
Introduction: Society in the Early 19th Century
Status of Women (200 years ago): Most girls were married off at a
young age, and both Hindu and Muslim men could have multiple wives.
Widows were expected to practice sati (self-immolation on the
husband’s funeral pyre) and were praised. Their rights to own property
were restricted, and they had almost no access to education. A popular
belief was that an educated woman would become a widow. The
people feared that schools would take girls away from home, which
was unsafe and not appropriate. Believed that girls should learn
household work, not study, as it would make them disobedient or
independent. And it was against tradition and religious norms.
Caste Divisions: Apart from gender, society was sharply divided by
caste. At the top were Brahmans and Kshatriyas (“upper castes”),
followed by Vaishyas (traders, moneylenders) and Shudras (peasants,
artisans). Those performing “polluting” jobs (like cleaning, carrying
carcasses, tanning leather) were treated as the lowest group, later
termed Dalits; they were labeled “untouchable” and faced rigid
segregation. They could not enter temples, draw water from wells used
by higher castes, or even use the same ponds. They were regarded by
the upper castes as inferior human beings.
Working Towards Change
Debates and the Print Revolution: In the early 1800s, books,
newspapers, pamphlets, and magazines became cheaper and more
widely available, allowing ordinary people to read and express their
ideas publicly. Social, political, economic, and religious issues were
debated in new urban centers, reaching a wider audience (including
men and sometimes women) and sparking movements for social
change.
Indian Reformers: These social reformers believed that Indian
society needed to abolish unjust social practices and adopt progress.
One such reformer was Raja Rammohun Roy (1772–1833), who
founded the Brahmo Sabha (later Brahmo Samaj) in Calcutta in 1828.
Reformers like Roy argued that society could be improved by
abandoning outdated and harmful customs and embracing modern
western ideas and justice for freedom and equality of women.
Changing the Lives of Widows
Rammohun Roy and Sati: Rammohun Roy was deeply moved by the
plight of widows and began a campaign to end sati (the practice of
widows immolating themselves). A scholar of Sanskrit, Persian and
other languages, Roy used ancient sacred texts to show that widow-
, burning had no scriptural basis, challenging the religious rationale for
sati. Largely due to these efforts, the colonial government banned
the practice of sati in 1829 . This was one of the first major legal
reforms in colonial India.
Strategy of Citing Tradition: whenever they challenged a
harmful tradition, they cited ancient texts to back their
argument, claiming the current practice deviated from original
tradition. This approach reassured people that reform was not entirely
“Western” or anti-Indian, but rather a restoration of true values.
He began a strong campaign against the practices of sati and
argued that it was inhumane, unjust, and held no support in
the sacred text.
He wrote articles to British officials and urged the government
to intervene and pass a law to ban sati.
His efforts led to the passing of the Sati Regulation Act of
1829, which allowed the practices under the governor general
Lord William Bentinck.
Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar and Widow Remarriage: The reformer
Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar in Bengal carried forward the battle for
widows. Using ancient Sanskrit scripture, Vidyasagar showed that
widows could remarry, and the Widow Remarriage Act, 1856, was
passed. Groups boycotted Vidyasagar for going against social norms.
In the Telugu-speaking region (Madras Presidency), Veerasalingam
Pantulu formed an association to encourage widow remarriage.
Reformers in Bombay (like those in the Paramhansa Mandali) also
campaigned to let widows marry again. In northern India, Swami
Dayanand Saraswati, who founded the Arya Samaj in 1875,
supported widow remarriage as part of his broader reform of Hinduism.
Despite these efforts, actual widow remarriages remained few, as
widows who remarried were often socially shunned by conservative
families.
Girls Begin Going to School
Vidyasagar in Calcutta and others in Bombay set up some of the first
schools for girls in the mid-19th century.
Resistance to Girls’ Schools: There was also a prejudice that public
education would corrupt girls’ minds and morals. In fact, a prevalent
notion was that “educated girls might refuse to obey elders or desire
unsuitable freedoms,” reflecting the conservative mindset. Typically, a
liberal father or husband would teach the girl, or she might learn to
read secretly on her own. (E.g., Rashsundari Debi in Bengal secretly
learned to read and write by herself at night).
By the later 19th century, reform organizations started founding formal
schools for girls. The Arya Samaj (Dayanand Saraswati’s movement)
established girls’ schools in Punjab, and Jyotirao Phule opened
