ADVANCED PATHOPHYSIOLOGY EXAM 4
2026 FINAL ASSESSMENT PREPARATION
PAPER HIGH YIELD CONCEPTS AND
ANSWERS
◉ Becker muscular dystrophy
Answer: Decreased dystrophin and it is defective
◉ Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy - Pathogenesis
Answer: Genetic defect of the dystrophin gene Xp21 causes a
complete loss of formation of dystrophin leading to instability of
muscle cells that are vulnerable to tears during contraction. Influx of
Ca+ causes degeneration of myofibers.
◉ Dystrophin
Answer: A large protein that forms dystrophin-glycoprotein complex
that stabilizes muscle cells by anchoring the sarcomere to the
sarcolemma.
◉ Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy - Clinical Manifestations
Answer: *S/s begin at 2-5. Wheelchair by 7-12. Most dead by 21.
,*Muscle weakness beginning in pelvis and shoulder. Clumsy, unable
to keep up with peers.
*Pseudohypertrophy of calf muscles
*Cognitive impairments
*Lab findings: Increased CK,
Western blot shows absence of dystrophin
◉ Becker Muscular Dystrophy - Pathogenesis
Answer: *Genetic defect on Xp21 that diminishes the amount of
dystrophin in defective form.
*Allows anchorage of muscle to cell membrane but impairs long
term functions
◉ Becker Muscular Dystrophy - Clinical Manifestations
Answer: *Manifests later in childhood or adolescence and
progresses more slowly with longer life expectancy
*Muscle weakness, cardiac muscle disease
, *Western blot shows altered dystrophin size
◉ Basal ganglia
Answer: Regulates voluntary mvmt and maintain posture. Initiation,
amplitude, and speed of mvmt.
Also important in cognition and emotion
Includes:
i. Caudate nucleus and putamen
ii. Globus palladius
iii. Substantial Nigra
iv. Subthalamic nucleus
◉ Corticol-basal ganglionic-thalamic-corticol loop (Basal ganglia)
Answer: Cortex --> corpus striatum --> globus pallidus --> thalamus
--> cortex
BLUE
◉ Substantia nigra - corpus striatum loop (basal ganglia)
Answer: Basal ganglia
2026 FINAL ASSESSMENT PREPARATION
PAPER HIGH YIELD CONCEPTS AND
ANSWERS
◉ Becker muscular dystrophy
Answer: Decreased dystrophin and it is defective
◉ Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy - Pathogenesis
Answer: Genetic defect of the dystrophin gene Xp21 causes a
complete loss of formation of dystrophin leading to instability of
muscle cells that are vulnerable to tears during contraction. Influx of
Ca+ causes degeneration of myofibers.
◉ Dystrophin
Answer: A large protein that forms dystrophin-glycoprotein complex
that stabilizes muscle cells by anchoring the sarcomere to the
sarcolemma.
◉ Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy - Clinical Manifestations
Answer: *S/s begin at 2-5. Wheelchair by 7-12. Most dead by 21.
,*Muscle weakness beginning in pelvis and shoulder. Clumsy, unable
to keep up with peers.
*Pseudohypertrophy of calf muscles
*Cognitive impairments
*Lab findings: Increased CK,
Western blot shows absence of dystrophin
◉ Becker Muscular Dystrophy - Pathogenesis
Answer: *Genetic defect on Xp21 that diminishes the amount of
dystrophin in defective form.
*Allows anchorage of muscle to cell membrane but impairs long
term functions
◉ Becker Muscular Dystrophy - Clinical Manifestations
Answer: *Manifests later in childhood or adolescence and
progresses more slowly with longer life expectancy
*Muscle weakness, cardiac muscle disease
, *Western blot shows altered dystrophin size
◉ Basal ganglia
Answer: Regulates voluntary mvmt and maintain posture. Initiation,
amplitude, and speed of mvmt.
Also important in cognition and emotion
Includes:
i. Caudate nucleus and putamen
ii. Globus palladius
iii. Substantial Nigra
iv. Subthalamic nucleus
◉ Corticol-basal ganglionic-thalamic-corticol loop (Basal ganglia)
Answer: Cortex --> corpus striatum --> globus pallidus --> thalamus
--> cortex
BLUE
◉ Substantia nigra - corpus striatum loop (basal ganglia)
Answer: Basal ganglia
