Patho 101
Final Exam
Key Concepts
& Disorders
Latest
Update 2026
| Exam Prep
Week 1
Ch. 2 Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance
Values to Know
• pH= 7.35 – 7.45
• CO2 = 35-45
• HCO3 = 22 – 26
• Calcium= 9-10.5 mg/dL
• Potassium= 3.5-5mEq/L
Respiratory Acidosis: Occurs when CO2 is high in the blood or hydrogen ions
increase.
• pH ↓
• CO2 ↑
Respiratory Alkalosis: Occurs when Ph is high and CO2 is low in the blood.
• pH ↑
• CO2 ↓
Metabolic Acidosis: Occurs when bicarbonate is low and there are too many free H+
ions.
• pH ↓
• HCO3 ↓
Metabolic Alkalosis: Occurs when there is too much bicarbonate available, and it
binds H+ to make carbonic acid and there are low levels of free H+ ions.
• pH ↑
• HCO3 ↑
Hypocalcemia: low amount of calcium below 9 mg/dL
• S/S
o Muscle spasm (tetany)
o Increased deep tendon reflexes
o Tingling fingers
o Confusion/irritability
o Laryngospasm
o Arrhythmias (weak heart contractions).
o Positive Chovesk’s sign
o Positive Trousseau sign
, 1|Page
Hypercalcemia: large amount of calcium above 10.5 mg/dL
• S/S
o Lethargy/generalized weakness
o Hypoactive DTRs
o Anorexia/ Nausea
o Confusion
o Constipation/hypoactive bowel sounds
o Polyuria
o Kidney stones
o Hypertension
o Arrhythmias (strong heart contractions)
Hypokalemia: low amount of potassium below 3.5 mEq/L
• Affects the heart
• Medical emergency
• S/S
o Cardiac dysrhythmias
o Fatigue
o Muscle weakness
o Paresthesia
o Nausea
o Anorexia
o Polyuria
Hyperkalemia: large amount of potassium above 5 mEq/L
• Affects the heart
• Medical emergency
• S/S
o Cardiac dysrhythmias/arrest
o Muscle weakness
o Fatigue
o Nausea
o Paresthesia
, 1|Page
Week 2
Ch. 5 Inflammation & Healing
Inflammation: body’s nonspecific response to tissue injury
• S/S
o Redness
o Warmth
o swelling/edema
o pain to the affected area.
Ch. 6 Infection
Precautions
• Standard precaution: When you are close to or handling blood, bodily fluid,
bodily tissues, mucous membranes, or areas of open skin
o Used for all patients regardless of diagnosis
o Gloves
o Hand hygiene
• Airborne precaution: needed for germs that are so small (less than 5 microns)
that they can float in the air and travel long distances.
o Wear N95 masks for providers
o Used for cases such as:
▪Varicella
▪Tuberculosis (TB)
• Droplet precaution: used to prevent contact with mucus and other secretions
from the nose and sinuses, throat, airways, and lungs.
o Masks
o Used for cases such as:
▪
Strep
▪
Influenza
• Contact precaution: needed for germs that are spread by touching.
o Used for cases such as:
▪ C. diff
▪ Herpes simplex
▪
MRSA
• Protective (aka irreversible) isolation: used for individuals whose immune
system is compromised
2|Page
Ch. 7 Immunity
, Systematic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE): autoimmune disorder that is a chronic
inflammatory disease that effects multiple systems within the body.
• S/S
o Butterfly shaped facial skin rash
o Painful joints; arthralgia
o Photosensitivity
o Ulcerations of oral mucosa
o Hair loss
o Inflammation of pleural membranes (pleurisy)
o Chest pain related to pleurisy
o Raynaud phenomenon (vasospasm of fingers & toes)
o Depression, mood changes, seizures
o Anemia, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia
Week 3
Ch. 8 Integumentary (Skin) Disorders
Scabies: Infestation of a mite Sarcoptes Scabiei that burrow under the skin.
• Can be spread by direct contact with an infected individual.
• Signs & symptoms:
o Burrows appear as tiny, light brown to red lines
o Small vesicles present
o Erythema
o Severe pruritis
• Treatment
o anti-scabies medication
o Permethrin topical cream.
Pressure Injury Stages
• Stage I: Non Blanchable Erythema
o Intact skin is red but unbroken.
o Localized redness in lightly pigmented skin does not blanch (turn light with
fingertip pressure).
o Dark skin appears darker but does not blanch.
o May have changes in sensation, temperature, or firmness.
• Stage II: Partial-Thickness Skin Loss
o Loss of epidermis and exposed dermis.
o Superficial ulcer looks shallow like an abrasion or open blister with a red-
pink wound bed.
o No visible fat or deeper tissue.
• Stage III: Full-Thickness Skin Loss
o extends into subcutaneous tissue and resembles a crater.
o See subcutaneous fat, granulation tissue, and rolled edges, but not
muscle, bone, or tendon.
• Stage IV: Full-Thickness Skin/Tissue Loss
o involves all skin layers and extends into supporting tissue.
3|Page
Exposes muscle, tendon, or bone,
o
may show slough (stringy matter attached to wound bed) or eschar (black
o
or brown necrotic tissue), rolled edges, and tunneling
• Deep Tissue Pressure Injury (DTPI): Localized, non-blanchable color change
to deep red, maroon, purple in intact or nonintact skin.
o Bruise like
Final Exam
Key Concepts
& Disorders
Latest
Update 2026
| Exam Prep
Week 1
Ch. 2 Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance
Values to Know
• pH= 7.35 – 7.45
• CO2 = 35-45
• HCO3 = 22 – 26
• Calcium= 9-10.5 mg/dL
• Potassium= 3.5-5mEq/L
Respiratory Acidosis: Occurs when CO2 is high in the blood or hydrogen ions
increase.
• pH ↓
• CO2 ↑
Respiratory Alkalosis: Occurs when Ph is high and CO2 is low in the blood.
• pH ↑
• CO2 ↓
Metabolic Acidosis: Occurs when bicarbonate is low and there are too many free H+
ions.
• pH ↓
• HCO3 ↓
Metabolic Alkalosis: Occurs when there is too much bicarbonate available, and it
binds H+ to make carbonic acid and there are low levels of free H+ ions.
• pH ↑
• HCO3 ↑
Hypocalcemia: low amount of calcium below 9 mg/dL
• S/S
o Muscle spasm (tetany)
o Increased deep tendon reflexes
o Tingling fingers
o Confusion/irritability
o Laryngospasm
o Arrhythmias (weak heart contractions).
o Positive Chovesk’s sign
o Positive Trousseau sign
, 1|Page
Hypercalcemia: large amount of calcium above 10.5 mg/dL
• S/S
o Lethargy/generalized weakness
o Hypoactive DTRs
o Anorexia/ Nausea
o Confusion
o Constipation/hypoactive bowel sounds
o Polyuria
o Kidney stones
o Hypertension
o Arrhythmias (strong heart contractions)
Hypokalemia: low amount of potassium below 3.5 mEq/L
• Affects the heart
• Medical emergency
• S/S
o Cardiac dysrhythmias
o Fatigue
o Muscle weakness
o Paresthesia
o Nausea
o Anorexia
o Polyuria
Hyperkalemia: large amount of potassium above 5 mEq/L
• Affects the heart
• Medical emergency
• S/S
o Cardiac dysrhythmias/arrest
o Muscle weakness
o Fatigue
o Nausea
o Paresthesia
, 1|Page
Week 2
Ch. 5 Inflammation & Healing
Inflammation: body’s nonspecific response to tissue injury
• S/S
o Redness
o Warmth
o swelling/edema
o pain to the affected area.
Ch. 6 Infection
Precautions
• Standard precaution: When you are close to or handling blood, bodily fluid,
bodily tissues, mucous membranes, or areas of open skin
o Used for all patients regardless of diagnosis
o Gloves
o Hand hygiene
• Airborne precaution: needed for germs that are so small (less than 5 microns)
that they can float in the air and travel long distances.
o Wear N95 masks for providers
o Used for cases such as:
▪Varicella
▪Tuberculosis (TB)
• Droplet precaution: used to prevent contact with mucus and other secretions
from the nose and sinuses, throat, airways, and lungs.
o Masks
o Used for cases such as:
▪
Strep
▪
Influenza
• Contact precaution: needed for germs that are spread by touching.
o Used for cases such as:
▪ C. diff
▪ Herpes simplex
▪
MRSA
• Protective (aka irreversible) isolation: used for individuals whose immune
system is compromised
2|Page
Ch. 7 Immunity
, Systematic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE): autoimmune disorder that is a chronic
inflammatory disease that effects multiple systems within the body.
• S/S
o Butterfly shaped facial skin rash
o Painful joints; arthralgia
o Photosensitivity
o Ulcerations of oral mucosa
o Hair loss
o Inflammation of pleural membranes (pleurisy)
o Chest pain related to pleurisy
o Raynaud phenomenon (vasospasm of fingers & toes)
o Depression, mood changes, seizures
o Anemia, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia
Week 3
Ch. 8 Integumentary (Skin) Disorders
Scabies: Infestation of a mite Sarcoptes Scabiei that burrow under the skin.
• Can be spread by direct contact with an infected individual.
• Signs & symptoms:
o Burrows appear as tiny, light brown to red lines
o Small vesicles present
o Erythema
o Severe pruritis
• Treatment
o anti-scabies medication
o Permethrin topical cream.
Pressure Injury Stages
• Stage I: Non Blanchable Erythema
o Intact skin is red but unbroken.
o Localized redness in lightly pigmented skin does not blanch (turn light with
fingertip pressure).
o Dark skin appears darker but does not blanch.
o May have changes in sensation, temperature, or firmness.
• Stage II: Partial-Thickness Skin Loss
o Loss of epidermis and exposed dermis.
o Superficial ulcer looks shallow like an abrasion or open blister with a red-
pink wound bed.
o No visible fat or deeper tissue.
• Stage III: Full-Thickness Skin Loss
o extends into subcutaneous tissue and resembles a crater.
o See subcutaneous fat, granulation tissue, and rolled edges, but not
muscle, bone, or tendon.
• Stage IV: Full-Thickness Skin/Tissue Loss
o involves all skin layers and extends into supporting tissue.
3|Page
Exposes muscle, tendon, or bone,
o
may show slough (stringy matter attached to wound bed) or eschar (black
o
or brown necrotic tissue), rolled edges, and tunneling
• Deep Tissue Pressure Injury (DTPI): Localized, non-blanchable color change
to deep red, maroon, purple in intact or nonintact skin.
o Bruise like
